Meditation on the Passion -- The Man of Sorrows with Instruments of the Passion

Fra Angelico and assistants, Meditation on the Passion, The
Man of Sorrows with
Instruments of the Passion with the Blessed Virgin Mary
and Saint Thomas Aquinas
Italian,  c.1441-1442
Florence, Convent of San Marco

In the same manner in which Fra Angelico showed Mary

and Saint Dominic meditating on the Mocking  of 

Jesus this picture (worked on mostly by assistants) shows 

Mary and Saint Thomas Aquinas.  Thomas appears to 

be in the act of preparing to write down his thoughts.  

The figure of Jesus is surrounded by (from left to right) 

the sponge on the reed, the lance, a slapping right hand, 

Judas in the act of betrayal, Peter being challenged 

by the serving maid, the Cross and inscription, 

the attack on His  blindfolded head, a truncheon, a spitting

head and the 30 pieces of silver changing hands.  

 “The Lord GOD has given me

a well-trained tongue,

that I might know how to speak to the weary

a word that will rouse them.

Morning after morning

he opens my ear that I may hear;

and I have not rebelled,

have not turned back.

I gave my back to those who beat me,

my cheeks to those who plucked my beard;

my face I did not shield

from buffets and spitting.

The Lord GOD is my help,

therefore, I am not disgraced;

I have set my face like flint,

knowing that I shall not be put to shame.”

Isaiah 50:4-7 (First Reading of the Mass for Palm Sunday of the Lord’s Passion)

In 2012 I first presented an essay on the image of the Man of Sorrows (view here), that is (originally) on the image of Jesus Post-Crucifixion, with the imprint of the nails and the lance, wearing the Crown of Thorns, positioned at the center of the image, no longer alive but not part of a Pietà image nor an Entombment image.  Such pictures are devotional images, introduced into western Europe from the Byzantine Empire during the 13^th century, through Venice.  

In the Byzantine world this image remained fairly static.  However, in western Europe it took on many variations or, as I call them, “tropes”1.  Among the early tropes is the Man of Sorrows Surrounded by the Instruments of the Passion.  I have examined the idea and image of the Instruments of the Passion in a separate essay (here). 

This trope on the Man of Sorrows motif is remarkably consistent in nearly all the images of it that I have found.  In the main expression of the trope, Jesus as the Man of Sorrows is shown half-length, positioned as if emerging from the sepulcher and surrounded by the instruments of the Passion, some placed on the ground in front of the sepulcher (in the majority of cases) or draped over it and some seen as if suspended in the air around Him.  In some images Jesus may hold one or two of the items. 

Associate of the Bedford Master, The Man of Sorrows
with the Instruments of the Passion
From a Book of Hours
Flemish, c. 1400-1425
London, British Library
MS Royal 2 A VIII, fol. 55v

Attributed to the Bedford Master, The Man of Sorrows
with Instruments of the Passion
From a Book containing works by Christine de Pizan
French (Paris), c. 1410-1414
London, British Library
MS Harley 4431, fol. 257

A Master of the Gold Scrolls Group, The Man of
Sorrows with the Instruments of the Passion
From a Book of Hours
Flemish (Bruges), c. 1415-1425
New York, Pierpont Morgan Library
MS M 76, fol.70v

The Man of Sorrows with the Instruments of the Passion
From a Prayer Book
English, c. 1415-1440
Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France
MS Latin 1196, fol. 81r

Christ as the Man of Sorrows
Single Leaf from a Manuscript
Czech, c. 1420
Private Collection

The Man of Sorrows as the Ecce Homo,
Holding Instruments of the Passion
From a Missal
German, c.1430-1440
London, British Library
MS Harley 2855, fol. 3v

Follower of Masters of the Gold Scrolls
The Man of Sorrows with the Instruments of the Passion
From a Book of Hours
Flemish, c. 1440
The Hague, Meermano Museum
MS RMMW 10 F 11, fol. 65v

The Man of Sorrows with the Instruments of the Passion
From a Book of Hours
Dutch, c. 1450-1475
London, British Library
MS Harley 2966, fol. 84v

The Man of Sorrows with the Instruments of the Passion
From a Book of Hours
Flemish, c. 1450-75
London, British Library
MS Harley 2985, fol. 140v

Master of Riglos, The Man of Sorrows with Instruments
of the Passion
Spanish, c. 1435-1460
Oxford, University of Oxford, Campion Hall

Willem Vrelant, The Man of Sorrows with the
Instruments of the Passion
From the Arenberg Hours
Flemish (Bruges), c. 1460-1465
Los Angeles, J. Paul Getty Museum
MS Ludwig IX 8, fol. 234

The Man of Sorrows with the Instruments of the Passion
English, c. 1465-1470
Chicago, Art Institute

The Man of Sorrows with the Instruments of the Passion
Italian (Umbrian), c. 1476-1500
Cologne, Wallraf-Richartz-Museum, Fondation Corboud

The Man of Sorrows with the Instruments of the Passion
From a Book of Hours
French (Paris), c. 1490-1500
The Hague, Koninklijk Bibliotheek
MS KB 76 F 14, fol. 213v

Giovanni di Pietro, Called Lo Spagna, The Man of Sorrows with the Instruments of the Passion
Italian, c. 1490-1500
St. Petersburg, State Hermitage Museum

The vast majority of images present Jesus in this way, but a few show Him seated or standing outside of the sepulcher.

The Man of Sorrows with the Instruments of the Passion Showing the Five Wounds
From a Cathusian Miscellany
English, c. 1425-1475
London, British Library
MS Additional 37049, fol. 23

The Seated Man of Sorrows with the Instruments of the Passion
Nothern French, c. 1470
Boston, Museum of Fine Arts

Master of Edward IV, The Man of Sorrows with the Instruments of the Passion
From a Book of Hours
Dutch (Utrecht), c. 1495-1505
New York, Pierpont Morgan Library
MS G 5, fol. 59v

The Man of Sorrows with the Instruments of the Passion
From a Book of Hours
Flemish, c. 1500
London, British Library
MS King's 9, fol. 231v

Israhel van Meckenem, The Man of Sorrows with the Instruments of the Passion
From an Album of 12 Prints
Dutch, Late 15th Century
New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art

A further group includes the images of angels, saints or donors who may mourn, or meditate, or pray or appeal directly to the viewer to participate. 

Roberto Oderisi, The Man of Sorrows with
the Virgin Mary and Saint John the Evangelist
Surrounded by the Instruments of the Passion
Italian, c. 1354
Cambridge (MA), Harvard Art Museums

Master of the Parement of Narbonne< The Man of Sorrows Supported by Angels, with the Instruments of the Passion Behind
From a Book of Hours
French (Paris), c. 1380
Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France
MS NAL 3093, fol. 155r

Giovanni di Benedetto and Workshop, The Man of Sorrows
with the Virgin Mary and Saint John the Evangelist
Surrounded by the Instruments of the Passion
From a Missal
Italian, (Milan), c. 1385-1390
Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France
MS Latin 757, fol. 237r

Master of Saint Veronica, The Man of  Sorrows with the Virgin and St. Catherine Surrounded with the Instruments of the Passion
German, c. 1400-1420
Antwerp, Koninklijk Museum voor Schone Kunsten

Master of the Brussels Initials and Workshop, 
The Man of Sorrows with the Virgin Mary and the
Instruments of the Passion
From the Hours of Charles the Noble, King of Navarre
French, c. 1405
Cleveland Museum of Art
MS 1964.40, fol. 128

Bedford Master or His Workshop, The Deposition
Surrounded by Angels with the Instruments of the Passion
From the Hours of Charlotte of Savoy
French (Paris), c. 1415-1430
New York, Pierpont Morgan Library
MS M 1004, fol. 63v

Master of the Harvard Hannibal, The Man of Sorrows
Supported by an Angel and Venerated by a Bishop, with the Instruments of the Passion
Single Leaf from a Book of Hours
French (Paris), c. 1420
Private Collection

Masters of the Gold Scrolls, The Man of Sorrows
Supported by an Angel, with the Instruments of the Passion
From a Prayer Book
Flemish, c. 1450
The Hague, Koninklijk Bibliotheek
MS KB 130 E 17, fol. 31v

The Man of Sorrows with Angels and the Instruments of
the Passion
German, c. 1475-1485
London, British Museum

Master of the Oberaltaicher, The Man of Sorrows with
the Instruments of the Passion Adored by a Donor
German, c. 1515-1520
Munich, Bayerische Staatsgemäldesammlungen,
Alte Pinakothek

The Altarpiece of Boulbon, The Man of Sorrows with the Instruments of the Passion as the Second Person of the Trinity
to Whom the Donor is Presented by Saint Agricola of Avignon
French, c. 1530
Paris, Musée du Louvre

In some of these images Jesus gestures toward the wound in His side, to emphasize the piercing of His heart.  This image will eventually lead to the devotion to the Sacred Heart (see here).  

Meister Francke, The Man of Sorrows Supported
by an Angel with Angels Bearing the Instruments of
the Passion
German, c. 1420
Leipzig, Museum der Bildenden Künste

Jean le Tavernier and Follower, The Man of Sorrows with the Instruments of the Passion
From a Meditation de la Passion
Flemish, c. 1450-1460
The Hague, Koninklijk Bibliotheek
MS KB 76 F 2, fol. 221r

The Man of Sorrows with the Instruments of the Passion
Flemish, c. 1450-1500
Barnard Castle, County Durham (UK),  Bowes Museum

Master of the Dutuit Mount of Olives, 
The Man of Sorrows with the Instruments of the Passion
German, c. 1455-1470
London, British Museum

Willem Vrelant, The Man of Sorrows with
the Instruments of the Passion
From the Hours of Catherine of Aragon
Flemish, c. 1460
The Hague, Koninklijk Bibliotheek
MS KB 76 F 7, fol. 173v

The Man of Sorrows Supported by Angels and
Surrounded by the Instruments of the Passion
From a Book of Hours
Flemish, c. 1465-1475
New York, Pierpont Morgan Library
MS M 93, fol.136v

The Man of Sorrows with the Instruments of the Passion
From a Breviary
French (Toulouse), c. 1485-1495
New York, Pierpont Morgan Library
MS M 463, fol.54r

This image is a little unusual because of the very prominent position given to the dice, which are usually not so pointedly

 featured.

Goswijn van der Weyden, The Triptych of Abbot Antonius Tsgooten
Flemish, 1507
Antwerp, Koninklijk Museum voor Schone Kunsten

Workshop of Albrecht Bouts, The Man of Sorrows with the Instruments of the Passion
Dutch, c. 1530
Budapest, Szepmusveszeti Muzeum

All images of the Man of Sorrows are meant to be devotional images, for the contemplation of the sacrifice of Calvary and the price of salvation.  This trope represents a further intensification of the meditation on the sacrifice of the Cross as we are reminded of the torture that occurred before the nailing to the Cross. 

© M. Duffy, 2018.  Additional material added, 2024.

1. Here “trope” is used in the original sense of “a phrase or verse added as an embellishment or interpolation to the sung parts of the Mass in the Middle Ages”.  Merriam-Webster.com, Merriam-Webster, www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/trope. Accessed 23 Mar. 2018.

Excerpts from the Lectionary for Mass for Use in the Dioceses of the United States of America, second typical edition © 2001, 1998, 1997, 1986, 1970 Confraternity of Christian Doctrine, Inc., Washington, DC. Used with permission. All rights reserved. No portion of this text may be reproduced by any means without permission in writing from the copyright owner.

The Brazen Serpent

Miniature Altarpiece with the Sacrifice of Isaac, the Crucifixion and Moses with the Brazen Serpent

Dutch, Early 16th Century

New  York, Metropolitan Museum of Art

“Jesus said to Nicodemus:

“Just as Moses lifted up the serpent in the desert,
so must the Son of Man be lifted up,
so that everyone who believes in him may have eternal life.”
For God so loved the world that he gave his only Son,
so that everyone who believes in him might not perish
but might have eternal life.
For God did not send his Son into the world to condemn the world,
but that the world might be saved through him.
Whoever believes in him will not be condemned,
but whoever does not believe has already been condemned,
because he has not believed in the name of the only Son of God.
And this is the verdict,
that the light came into the world,
but people preferred darkness to light,
because their works were evil.
For everyone who does wicked things hates the light
and does not come toward the light,
so that his works might not be exposed.
But whoever lives the truth comes to the light,
so that his works may be clearly seen as done in God.”

John 3:14-21  Gospel for the Fourth Sunday of Lent, Year B

What is this serpent lifted up by Moses in the desert that Jesus refers to when speaking to Nicodemus?  Well, since the earliest years Christians have seen this incident, described in the Book of Numbers, as a metaphor or sign of the Crucifixion of Jesus.  As described in the Book of Numbers:

“From Mount Hor the children of Israel set out on the Red Sea road,

to bypass the land of Edom.

But with their patience worn out by the journey,

the people complained against God and Moses,

"Why have you brought us up from Egypt to die in this desert,

where there is no food or water?

We are disgusted with this wretched food!"

In punishment the LORD sent among the people saraph serpents,

which bit the people so that many of them died.

Then the people came to Moses and said,

"We have sinned in complaining against the LORD and you.

Pray the LORD to take the serpents away from us."

So Moses prayed for the people, and the LORD said to Moses,

"Make a saraph and mount it on a pole,

and whoever looks at it after being bitten will live."

Moses accordingly made a bronze serpent and mounted it on a pole,

and whenever anyone who had been bitten by a serpent

looked at the bronze serpent, he lived.”

Numbers 21:4-9  Reading I from the Feast of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross, September 14

This bronze serpent, often called the brazen serpent, set on a pole by Moses and lifted up so that that those who had been bitten could view it, has been interpreted as a prefiguration of the body of Jesus, lifted up on the Cross.  Where the bronze serpent cured those who looked at it of the effects of deadly snakebite, the body of Jesus (the Son of Man) on the Cross will cure those who look at it and believe in Him of the greatest death, the permanent death of the soul.  Belief in the One lifted up will lead to Eternal Life for those who look and believe. 

Moses and the Brazen Serpent
From the Orations by Gregory Nazianzenus
Byzantine (Constantinople), 11th-12th Centuries
Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France
MS Coislin 239, fol. 18r

Christian artists embraced the significance of this image from Saint John’s Gospel and produced many visual works that reminded viewers of the significance of this idea.  I think that it is fair to say that behind each image of the brazen serpent, lies the text of this Sunday’s Gospel. 

The Straightforward Image

Most images present the Old Testament text from Numbers without much adornment and without needing to hammer home the analogy to the Crucifix.  In fact, they set the serpent, often conceived of as dragon-headed, with ears and sometimes wings, on top of a column or pedestal, instead of hung on a pole.  

Enameled Plaque of Moses and the Brazen Serpent
Mosan, c. 1160
London, Victoria and Albert Museum

Moses and the Brazen Serpent
From a Picture Bible
French (Saint-Omer), c. 1190-1200
The Hague, Koninklijk Bibliotheek
MS KB 76 F 5, fol.  6v

Enameled Plaque of Moses and the Brazen Serpent
German, c. 1200
New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art

Frequently, additional figures beside Moses and his brother Aaron are shown.  These figures often are entangled with the biting serpents, or hold out parts of their bodies that have been bitten, asking for healing.

Moses and the Brazen Serpent
From the Golden Munich Psalter
English (Oxford), c. 1200-1225
Munich, Bayerisches Staatsbibliothek
MS Clm 835, fol. 20r

(A word about the depiction of Moses.  He is frequently shown with what look like horns coming from his head.  This motif, which seems very strange to our eyes, is common from the middle ages through the Renaissance.  (See, for instance, the great statue of Moses by Michelangelo now in the church of San Pietro in Vincoli in Rome.)  It is due to the fact that when Saint Jerome was preparing the Latin translation of the Hebrew Old Testament he used the word “cornuta” or “horned” to translate the reference in Exodus 34:29 to the radiance which shone from Moses face after he had been on Mount Sinai with God for the second time to receive the second set of the tablets of the Law.  In short, they represent not horns, but rays of light.) 1 

Moses and the Brazen Serpent
From a Book of Hours
German (Bamberg), c. 1204-1219
New York, Pierpont Morgan Library
MS M 739. fol. 16v

Here, as in the image above, the figures wear the traditional pointed hats that indicate Jewish identity in medieval Europe.  In this image, which is nightmarishly terrifying, some of the sufferers are actively being bitten by snakes, which are wrapping themselves around them and biting at mouths, eyes, nose and throat. 

Moses and the Brazen Serpent
German, c. 1240
Soest, Evangelical Church of Saint Mary

Moses and the Brazen Serpent (right)
From the Psalter of Saint Louis
French (Paris), c. 1270
Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France
MS Latin 10525, fol. 37v

Moses and the Brazen Serpent
From Bible historiale by Guiard des Moulins
French (Paris), 14th-15th Centuries
Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France
MS Francais 159, fol. 70r

Michiel van der Borch, Moses and the Brazen Serpent
From Rhimebible by Jacob van Maerlant
Dutch (Utrectht), 1332
The Hague, Meermano Museum
MS MMW 10 B 21, fol. 35r

Moses and the Brazen Serpent
From an Histoires bibliques
French (Saint-Quentin), 1350
Paris, Bibliothequ nationale de France
MS Francais 1753, fol. 48v

Jean Bandol and Others, Moses and the Brazen Serpent
From Grande Bible Historiale Completee
French (Paris), c. 1371-1372
The Hague, Meermano Museum,
MS MMW 10 B 23, fol.90r

Moses and the Brazen Serpent
From a Bible historiale by Guiard des Moulins
French (Paris), c. 1400
Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France
MS Francais 9, fol. 179v

Moses and the Brazen Serpent
From a History Bible by Ulrich Schriber
German (Strassburg), 1422
Munich, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek
MS SuStB Augsburg 2 Cod 50, fol. 113r

Bible Masters of the First Generation, Moses and the Brazen Serpent
Dutch (Utrecht), c. 1430
The Hague, Koninklijk Bibliotheek
MS KB 78 D 38, dl1, fol.  103v

Jan Joest von Kalkar, Moses and the Brazen Serpent
From the Passion Altarpiece
Dutch, 1508
Kalkar, Catholic Paris Church of Saint Nicholas

Michelangelo Buonarroti, The Brazen Serpent
Italian, 1511
Vatican City, Apostolic Palace, Sistine Chapel

Pierre Reymond, Bowl of an Enameled Tazza, Moses and the Brazen Serpent
French, 1556
Paris, Musee du Louvre, Département des Objets d'art du Moyen Age, de la Renaissance et des temps modernes

Anthony van Dyck, The Brazen Serpent
Flemish, c. 1618-1620
Madrid, Museo Nacional del Prado

Peter Paul Rubens, Moses and the Brazen Serpent
Flemish, c. 1635-1640
London, National Gallery

Tapestry After Charles Le Brun, Moses and the Brazen Serpent
French, c. 1686
Paris, Musée du Louvre

Brass Tobacco Box with Moses and the Brazen Serpent
Dutch, 18th Century
New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art

Toward the middle of the eighteenth century Corrado Giaquinto used the same basic composition in two paintings, with different color effects, apparently to work out the details of the final fresco painting in Rome's church of Santa Croce in Gerusalemme.  He managed to produce three similar paintings with three very distinct moods.

Corrado Giaquinto, the Brazen Serpent
Italian, c. 1743-1744
Madrid, Museo Nacional del Prado

Corrado Giaquinto, the Brazen Serpent
Italian, c. 1743-1744
London, National Gallery

Corrado Giaquinto, The Brazen Serpent
Italian, c. 1749-1751
Rome, Church of Santa Croce in Gerusalemme

The Brazen Serpent as an Allusion to the Crucifixion

Some images include a reference to the foreshadowing of the Crucifixion, either by direct juxtaposition, or by some sort of allusion.  

One of the primary, as one of the earliest, is in making the "pole" on which the serpent is displayed, into a cruciform shape, with a crossbar, instead of the simple pole referred to in the biblical text.  

Allegory of Salvation
From Bestiaire divin by Guillaume Le Clerc
English, c. 1350-1375
Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France
MS Francais 14969, fol. 9

Agnolo Bronzino, The Brazen Serpent
Italian, c. 1542
Florence, Palazzo Vecchio, Cappella di Eleonora

Johann Brabender, The Brazen Serpent
German, 1546
Hildesheim, Catholic Church of Saint Anthony

Moses and the Brazen Serpent
From a Book of Hours
French (Paris), c. 1547-155
Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France
MS Latin 1429, fol. 37r

Maarten van Heemskerck, The Brazen Serpent
Flemish, 1549
Princeton (NJ), Princeton University Art Museum

The miniature from the Book of Hours and the drawing by Heemskerck above both illustrate the impact that the discovery of the already famous statue of Laocöon and His Sons had on artists.2  

Athanodorus, Agesandrus and Polidorus of Rhodes, Laocöon and His Sons
Roman, 40-20 BC
Vatican City, Museo Pio Clementino, Cortile del Belvedere

The statue was known from preserved ancient texts before it was found in the ruins of the Baths of Trajan on January 10, 1506.  Its horrifying image, taken from the history of the Trojan War, of struggling human figures in the coils of a strong sea serpent had an enormous impact on artists from the date of its discovery.

Vincenzo Danti, Moses and the Brazen Serpent

Italian, 1559

Florence, Museo Nazionale del Bargello

Tintoretto, The Brazen Serpent
Italian, c. 1575-1576
Venice, Scuola Grande di San Rocco

Moses and the Brazen Serpent
German, 1597
Augsburg, Cathedral, Chapel of Saint Luke

Peter Paul Rubens, Moses and the Brazen Serpent
Flemish, c. 1609-1610
London, Courtauld Institute of Art Gallery

Fireback with Moses and the Brazen Serpent
German, c. 1650-1700
London, Victoria and Albert Museum

Sebastien Bourdon, Moses and the Brazen Serpent
French, c. 1653-1654
Madrid, Museo Nacional del Prado

Luca Giordano, Erection of the Brazen Serpent
Italian, c. 1703-1704
Naples, Certosa di San Martino

Giovanni Antonio Pellegrini, Moses and the Brazen Serpent
Italian, 1707
Venice, San Moise

Johann Jacob Stevens, The Brazen Serpent
Czech, c. 1718-1725
Ossegg, Convent Chapel of the Assumption

Franz Georg Hermann the Younger, Moses and the Brazen Serpent
German, 1733
Markoberdorf, Church of Saint Martin

Jean Charles Frontier, Moses and the Brazen Serpent
French, c. 1750
Gray, Musée  Baron Martin

Charles Francois-Hutin, The Brazen Serpent
French, 1753
Dresden, Holy Trinity Catholic Church

William Blake, Moses Erecting the Brazen Serpent
English, c. 1800-1803
Boston, Museum of Fine Arts

James Tissot, Moses and the Brazen Serpent
French, c.1896-1902
New York, Jewish Museum

The Brazen Serpent and the Cross

Some images went further.  They made a direct juxtaposition of the brazen serpent and Christ upon the Cross.

This appears to be seen first in devotional objects of metal, made during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries in the area around the river Meuse (or Maas), which runs through the region now divided into the countries of France, Luxembourg, Germany, the Netherlands and Belgium.  However, during the middle ages this region was distinct, politically united and independent.*  From the division of the Carolingian Empire following the death of Charlemagne and his son this area was known as Lotharingia, then later it formed part of the greater duchy of Burgundy and was, to all intents and purposes, a separate country, caught between France and the Holy Roman Empire.  In the eleventh and twelfth centuries it was noted for the quality and innovation of its metalworkers.  Many famous works in metal were produced by the craftsmen living along its banks and in the surrounding areas, such as Cologne.

The Alton Towers Triptych
Mosan (Cologne), c. 1150
London, Victoria and Albert Museum

The story of salvation is displayed in this triptych, which was probably intended as a portable altarpiece.  The central panel contains scenes from the life of Christ, while the two side panels contain scenes from the Old Testament that were seen as "types" for the Christian events.  See the relevant pictures in the image below.

The Alton Towers Triptych, central scenes
Mosan (Cologne), c. 1150
London, Victoria and Albert Museum

Here we can get a better idea of how the composition works.  In the central panel is a depiction of the Crucifixion with Christ on the cross between the Virgin Mary and Saint John the Evangelist.  On the left panel is the scene of the Sacrifice of Isaac with the angel stopping Abraham's knife at the last moment.  On the right panel is the scene of Moses and Aaron with the brazen serpent on a pole.  Both Old Testament scenes refer to the self-sacrifice of Jesus on the cross and its wider significance.

Altar Cross with Enamel Plaques
Mosan (Hildesheim), c. 1160-1200
London, Victoria and Albert Museum

This cross combines the image of the crucified Christ with individual enamel plaques of scenes from the Old Testament that were considered "types" of the Passion and Resurrection, from the left arm clockwise: Aaron marking a house with the blood of a lamb; Jacob blessing the sons of Joseph, Manasses and Ephraim; Elijah with the widow of Sarepta; and Moses and the brazen serpent.

 

Moses and the Brazen Serpent
From an Altar Cross with Enamel Plaques
Mosan (Hildesheim), c. 1160-1200
London, Victoria and Albert Museum

There is also the chalice, known as the Bernward Chalice, after the bishop of Hildesheim who famously commissioned the first full scale pieces of architectural bronzework since the fall of the Roman Empire.  In reality, the chalice (and its accompanying paten) were commissioned several decades after Bernward's death by one of his successors, Gerhard vom Berge.  The body of the chalice features four scenes from the life of Christ, while the foot of the chalice features four related Old Testament "types" for the same events.  The "type" which appears on the foot directly below the scene of the Crucifixion is that of the Brazen Serpent.3

The Bernward Chalice showing the Crucifixion
German (Hildesheim), First Third of the Thirteenth Century
Hildesheim, Papal Basilica of Saint Godehard

The Crucifixion
Detail from the Berward Chalice
German (Hildesheim), First Third of the Thirteenth Century
Hildesheim, Papal Basilica of Saint Godehard

The Crucifixion
Detail from the Berward Chalice
German (Hildesheim), First Third of the Thirteenth Century
Hildesheim, Papal Basilica of Saint Godehard

However, the Bernward Chalice is not the only one to make this connection.

Chalice with Crucifixion on the Knob and Moses and the Brazen Serpent on the Foot
German, c. 1230-1250
New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art. Cloisters Collection

However, in this case, the bowl of the chalice features engraved images of the apostles.  It is on the knob that the Crucifixion scene appears.  And, once again, the Old Testament scenes appear on the fool

Detail of the Knob of the Chalice
German, c. 1230-1250
New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art. Cloisters Collection

Detail of the Foot of the Chalice Showing Moses and the Brazen Serpent
German, c. 1230-1250
New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art. Cloisters Collection

Illuminators and painters also used the same arrangement in telling the story of salvation by Christ, including the Brazen Serpent among the significant Old Testament events that prefigured events in the life of Jesus Christ.

As, for instance, in this beautiful page from a Bible from Salzburg, which uses the motif of the tree of Jesse as a framework for presenting the three fold comparison of the Old and New Testaments.  

Jesse Tree of "Types"
From Biblia veteris et novi testamenti, the Grillinger Bible
Austrian (Salzburg), c. 1428-1430
Munich, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek
MS Clm 15701, fol. 9v

Detail of the Jesse Tree of "Types" featuring the Sacrifice of Abraham and the Brazen Serpent with the Crucifixion
From Biblia veteris et novi testamenti, the Grillinger Bible
Austrian (Salzburg), c. 1428-1430
Munich, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek
MS Clm 15701, fol. 9v

Bedford Master and Workshop, Crucifixion
From a Book of Hours
French (Paris), c. 1430-1435
New York, Pierpont Morgan Library
MS M 359, fol. 111v

Here the image of Moses and the Brazen Serpent is found in the lower left corner.  

Hugo van der Goes, Calvary Triptych
Flemish, c. 1465-1468
Ghent, Cathedral of Saint Bavo

Here the Brazen Serpent story if found in the right hand panel.

One of the most common ways in which this direct juxtaposition was transmitted was through works such as the Biblia pauperum, which divided the history of salvation into three eras:  Before the Law, that is stories from the Books of Genesis and Exodus; Under the Law, that is the remainder of the books of the Old Testament; and Under Grace, that is the books of the New Testament.   The sample shown here compares the Crucifixion with the Sacrifice of Isaac, in which before the Law Abraham is willing to sacrifice his son, Isaac, at God’s command and is stopped at the last minute by an angel, and the setting up of the brazen serpent by Moses, under the Law.  The Crucifixion is under Grace and is the lifting up of God’s son as He willingly accepts a sacrificial death to save mankind.

Rambures Master, Sacrifice of Isaac, Crucifixion of Jesus, Moses and the Brazen Serpent
From a Biblia pauperum
French (Amiens), c. 1470
The Hague, Meermano Museum
MS MMW 10 A 15, fol. 32r

Beyond the Medieval World

This method of presenting the parallels between the Old and New Testaments continued into the Renaissance/Reformation period and beyond.

In this enameled pyx (a sacred vessel for storing the consecrated hosts after Mass), one side depicts Moses and the Brazen Serpent, while the other side depicts the episode of “Doubting Thomas” when the resurrected Jesus encourages the doubting disciple, Thomas, to probe His wounds to prove that He is alive and no ghost.

Enamel Pyx with Moses and the Brazen Serpent
French, c. 1501
Ratingen, Private Collection

Enamel Pyx with The Risen Christ Displaying His Wounds
to Doubting Thomas
French, c. 1501
Ratingen, Private Collection

The early Protestant reformers adopted the image of the Brazen Serpent to emphasize their belief that one is saved solely through grace and belief, without necessarily engaging in good works.  Lucas Cranach the Younger produced what might be considered a painted manifesto of this idea in his rather odd painting known as the Weimar Altarpiece.  

Lucas Cranach the Younger, The Weimar Altarpiece, Center
German, 1555
Weimar, Stadtkirch Sankt Peter und Paul

In the famous Weimar Altarpiece by Lucas Cranach the Younger, we see Jesus in the foreground twice.  He is shown as the Crucified, lifted on the cross.  Blood pours from His wounds as in a standard Catholic Crucifixion scene.  However, one stream from His side projects out and curves so as to hint that it will hit Martin Luther squarely in the face, a possible sign of divine approbation.  Luther stands to the right of the picture, his finger pointing to a passage in an open book, presumably his translation of the Bible.  Behind him stands Lucas Cranach the Elder, the painter’s father, who may have been an early convert to Luther’s point of view (there is some uncertainty about this because, while producing work for Luther, he also continued to produce works of art with a Catholic viewpoint).  Behind Cranach is a figure that is usually interpreted as John the Baptist, wearing a red cloak, the symbol of martyrdom, over his goatskin clothing.  He points up at the Crucified Christ and down at the Paschal Lamb.  At the left of the painting we see Jesus again, as the Risen Savior, triumphing over Death and a monstrous devil.  In the central background we see Moses delivering the tablets of the Law to the people, while a skeletal figure chases a near naked man away from the group.  Above the heads of Luther, Cranach and John the Baptist we see the episode of Moses setting up the Brazen Serpent.  Nothing in the painting, however, is actually at odds with Catholic beliefs, apart from the inclusion of Cranach and Luther.  Cranach, however, through his prayerful gesture hints at the common Catholic practice of including living donors in prayer before sacred figures.  Again, we are left in doubt about Cranach’s real intentions

In Cristobal de Villalpando’s immense altarpiece for the Catholic Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception in Puebla, Mexico, there is little ambiguity, but there is a surprise.  Villalpando chooses to compare the episode of the lifting up of the Brazen Serpent, not to the usual Crucifixion scene, but to the lifting up of Jesus during the Transfiguration.  The theme is reinforced by the fact that his figure of Moses in the Transfiguration scene, is holding a staff with a winged snake, just like the one in the scene below.  

Even the largest ceiling fresco ever created, the incredible ceiling for the staircase hall of the residence of the Prince-Bishops of Würzburg, makes the connection between the Crucifixion and the Brazen Serpent.  The work of Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, the design program of the fresco is that of the sun, personified as Apollo at the apex of the ceiling, illuminating the world, with the personified continents arranged at the sides.  In part of the painting representing the continent of Asia we can see both the Brazen Serpent on a pole and the hill of Calvary with two standing crosses.  

Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, Continental Asia from Allegory of Heaven and Earth
Italian, 1753
Würzburg, Staircase of the Residence of the Prince Bishops

Franz Georg Hermann, The Glorification of Divine Wisdom
German, c. 1755-1757
Bad Schussenried, New Convent Library

In the painting above, made for a Catholic convent, Moses and the Brazen Serpent is seen just to the right of the Crucified Jesus, while in the painting below, made for a Protestant church, the two are presented directly opposite each other at the narrow ends of the ceiling.  By the eighteenth century there was no difference in the iconography, just as before the Reformation.

Johann Nepomuk Nieberlein, Ceiling
German, 1774
Dinkelsbuehl, Evangelical Hospital Church

An unusual instance of the juxtaposition of the Brazen Serpent with the Crucifixion was made in 1759 by Johann Woflgang Baumgartner for the Church of the Holy Cross in Bergen-bei-Neuberg.  It is particularly unusual in that the image of Christ is not of the man on the cross, but of the child Jesus in Saint Joseph's workshop.  While angels hover above and present the open Scriptures, a vision of Moses with the Brazen Serpent appears over Jesus' right shoulder.  It is a reminder of what is to come rather than a memory of what is past.

Johann Wolfgang Baumgartner, Saint Joseph with the Christ Child
German, 1759
Bergen-bei-Neuberg, Church of the Holy Cross

The Biblical Aftermath

While the story of the setting up of the Brazen Serpent and its connection to the Crucifixion are fairly common in the history of art, there is a small body of works that record the after effects.  All of them date to the fourteenth century. 

Hezekiah Destroys the Brazen Serpent
From Histoires bibliques
French (Saint-Quentin), 1350
Paris, Bibliotheque natinale de France
MS Francais 1753, fol. 107v

Apparently, the bronze serpent on a pole, set up by Moses, was preserved after the Israelites settled down and, over time, became an object of cult worship.  However, the pious king of Judah, Hezekiah, who ruled during a period in which Jerusalem was besieged by the Assyrian king Sennacherib in the eighth century BC, destroyed such cult objects.  As Second Book of Kings tells the story:

“In the third year of Hoshea, son of Elah, king of Israel, Hezekiah, son of Ahaz, king of Judah, became king.

He was twenty-five years old when he became king, and he reigned twenty-nine years in Jerusalem. His mother’s name was Abi, daughter of Zechariah.

He did what was right in the LORD’s sight, just as David his father had done.

Hezekiah Destroys the Brazen Serpent
From a Bible historiale by Guiard des Moulins
French (Paris), 14th-15th Century
Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France
MS Francais 159, fol. 166r

It was he who removed the high places, shattered the pillars, cut down the asherah, and smashed the bronze serpent Moses had made, because up to that time the Israelites were burning incense to it. (It was called Nehushtan.)

Jean Bandol and Others, Hezekiah Ordering the Smashing of the
Brazen Serpent
French (Paris), c. 1371-1372)
The Hague, Meermano Museum
MS MMW 10 B 23, fol. 184r

He put his trust in the LORD, the God of Israel; and neither before nor after him was there anyone like him among all the kings of Judah.

Hezekiah held fast to the LORD and never turned away from following him, but observed the commandments the LORD had given Moses.”

2 Kings 18:1-6

Presumably, the people had lost track of the real meaning of the Brazen Serpent and were worshiping it as an idol in its own right and not as a helpful sign of God's love and protection.

© M. Duffy, 2018, images updated and new material added 2024

1. Mellinkoff, Ruth.  The Horned Moses in Medieval Art and Thought, Berkeley and Los Angeles, University of California Press, 1970.
2. Harrison, Jefferson C.  “The Brazen Serpent” by Maarten van Heemskerck:  Aspects of Its Style and Meaning, Record of the Art Museum, Princeton University, Volume 49, 1990, pp. 16-29.
3. Medieval Treasures from Hildesheim. Edited by Peter Barnet, Michael Brandt and Gerhard Lutz, New York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2013, pp. 18-19, 115.

* In 1978 some of this old unity was restored when the European Union created the Meuse-Rhine Euroregion on some of the same old ground.  It incorporates portions of Germany, the Netherlands and Belgium to work on cross-border projects that concern the entire region.

Scripture texts in this work are taken from the New American Bible, revised edition © 2010, 1991, 1986, 1970 Confraternity of Christian Doctrine, Washington, D.C. and are used by permission of the copyright owner. All Rights Reserved. No part of the New American Bible may be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the copyright owner.