,%201355-1365_Pierpont%20Morgan%20Library_MS%20M769,%20fol.28v_2.jpg) |
| +Nimrod Commands the Building of the Tower of Babel From Weltchronik German (Regensburg), c. 1355-1365 New York, Pierpont Morgan Library MS M 769, fol.28v |
“The whole world spoke the same language, using the same words.
While the people were migrating in the east,
they came upon a valley in the land of
Shinar and settled there.
They said to one another,
"Come, let us mold bricks and harden
them with fire."
They used bricks for stone, and bitumen for
mortar.
Then they said, "Come, let us build
ourselves a city
and a tower with its top in the sky,
and so make a name for ourselves;
otherwise we shall be scattered all over the
earth."
The LORD came down to see the city and the
tower
that they had built.
Then the LORD said: "If now, while they
are one people,
all speaking the same language,
they have started to do this,
nothing will later stop them from doing whatever
they presume to do.
Let us then go down and there confuse their
language,
so that one will not understand what another
says."
Thus the LORD scattered them from there all
over the earth,
and they stopped building the city.
That is why it was called Babel,
because there the LORD confused the speech
of all the world.
It was from that place that he scattered
them all over the earth.”
Genesis
11:1-9, Reading for February 17, 2017, Weekday Readings Cycle 1
During this
month of February in Weekday Cycle 1, which is being read at all the weekday
Masses this year, we are presented with readings from the first book of the Old
Testament, the book of Genesis.
One of the
stories about the beginnings of human awareness of God is the story of the
Tower of Babel. We are told that “once
upon a time” all the people living on earth spoke one language. This is actually probably true, since at one
time, the human population of the earth was tiny and all its members probably
did make the same sounds to signify the same things. Recent scientific research has concluded that
all of us are the children of a small group of African primates and that there
really was a biological Adam and a biological Eve whose DNA every human being
alive still carries. In 2011 a flurry of
scientific publications posited that there was also evidence for an original
language common to all humans at one point in time in Africa that was the
“mother language” for all modern languages. 1
 |
| Jan Collaert after Jan Snellinck, Nimrod and the People Laying Out the Site for the Tower of Babel From Thesaurus sacrarum historiarum veteris testamenti Flemish, c.1579 London, Trustees of the British Museum |
So, it would
seem that, like the story of Creation, the story of the Tower of Babel
represents an intuitive, divinely inspired, understanding of the real
evolutionary process that resulted in the world as we know it. Mixed in with this intuition is the memory, probably
by word of mouth, of the great structures that were erected in the ancient Near
East for the purposes of worship of the primitive gods. The two strains combine in the story of the
Tower of Babel to provide an explanation of why there are so many different
human languages.
The Leaning Tower of Pisa
From the mid-fourteenth century it is probably safe to say that we begin to see traces of one of the most famous of all church bell towers, the one then being completed at Pisa, now known as the Leaning Tower of Pisa. Its colonnaded tiers can be traced in many of the illustrations of the story of the Tower of Babel in the coming years.
Most of their conjectures were fanciful, though they were drawn from reading the ancient texts that were becoming increasingly available through the growing use of the printing press. Views of the wonders of the world, such as those drawn by Maarten van Heemskerck and engraved by many other hands for well over a century, were popular and served as guides for other artists.
However, the only monuments of
the ancient world that remained fairly easily viewable to most European artists
at this time were the Colosseum and the Pantheon, both in Rome. The other great monuments still standing were
the pyramids and they were in Egypt, which was doubly distanced from European
artists by its location and the enmity of its Muslim rulers. Consequently, the images of the pyramids that
were available in Europe were largely flights of fancy (although there were two
small pyramids that were visible in Rome at the time, the pyramid of Gaius
Cestius, which still stands and another pyramid located between the Vatican and
the Castel Sant’Angelo, which was dismantled in the early 16th
century 6).
Most works of the 20th century do bear some resemblance to the ziggurat shape, if only in the emphasis on terraced levels, but the Tower still seems a construct of the mind, rather than an archaeological document.
Confusion and Dissolution versus Reconciliation and Unity
However, the high middle ages and the Renaissance also looked for Biblical “types” whereby the stories of the Old Testament served as foreshadowings of events in the New Testament. And so it was for the Tower of Babel. From the fourteenth century on it became paired with a New Testament event, the Descent of the Holy Spirit on the Apostles at Pentecost.
_____________________________________________________
 |
Frederik van Valckenborgh I, The Building of the Tower of Babel
Dutch, End of the 16th-Beginning of the 17th Centuries
Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum
|
The idea of
the building of such a tower probably comes from memories of the ziggurats of
ancient Mesopotamia, the land between the two rivers, in which Abraham was
living when first called by God to move west into Canaan.
 |
| Reconstruction of a Sumerian Ziggurat |
All of the earliest known urban civilizations,
with the exception of Egypt, arose in this area: Sumer, Babylon, Assyria and others and they
built ziggurats. A ziggurat was a sort
of pyramidal shaped building, made of brick, with terraces that defined each of
the levels as it ascended, somewhat like a square wedding cake. The different levels were connected by
exterior stairs, resulting in a zig-zag pattern. At the top archaeologists believe that there was
probably a shrine to the local gods, though none of these has survived.
In the
Biblical narrative, it is said that “while the people were migrating in the
east, they came upon a valley in the land of Shinar and settled there”, which
is a rather remarkable statement. It is
believed by evolutionary anthropologists that modern humans migrated out of
Africa in several waves, including one that went toward the lands of Mesopotamia. The text would seem to be a retained record
of an eastward migration at a very early time.
Shinar is the Biblical name for “the land of ancient Babylonia,
embracing Sumer and Akkad, present-day southern Iraq”2 ruled at the
time of the building of the tower by Nimrud, a mighty hunter, according to
Genesis 10:8-12. 3
 |
| Leandro Bassano, The Building of the Tower of Babel Italian, c. 1600 London, National Gallery |
The Biblical
account is, among other interpretations, a way of explaining how the land of
Babylon got its name. The notes on this
chapter in the New American Bible explain that Babel is “the Hebrew form of the name “Babylon”; the
Babylonians interpreted their name for the city, Bab-ili, as “gate
of god.” The Hebrew word balal, “he confused,” has a similar sound.” Accordingly, the Biblical account says that
when the people had settled in the land of Shinar they decided to build a city
and a great tower, which caused concern to God.
,%201473_BNF_MS%20Francais%2066,%20fol.%205r_2.jpg) |
| +The Master of Margaret of York and Workshop, The Destruction of the Tower of Babel From a La Bouquechardiere by Jean de Courcy Flemish (Bruges), 1473 Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France MS Francais 66, fol. 5r |
Why God should be so upset by this tower is not stated. But, what is stated seems to suggest that, by
wishing to create this tower and city, the people appear to be colluding in
setting themselves up to rival God, “to be like gods” as the snake had tempted
Adam and Eve (Genesis 3:5). In addition,
by wishing to concentrate in the city they are refusing to move out to populate
the earth, as God had instructed at the end of the Flood “Be fertile and
multiply and fill the earth” (Genesis 9:1 and 7). Furthermore, it demonstrated an astonishing
level of human pride, especially as it came shortly after the great Flood and showed the continuing force of Original Sin. So, to
discourage them from further aggrandizing efforts and to achieve His
commandment, He caused them to begin to speak differing languages, which
resulted in their not being able to complete the building and into dispersing
in different language groups all over the earth.5
The Tower of Babel has been a subject that has fascinated artists as they attempted to imagine
what this tower would be like.
But where
did European artists find the models for their idea of what this tower should
look like, since there were no ziggurats in Europe at any time and knowledge of them, if it ever existed in Europe, had been forgotten?
Models of the Tower
Artists in
Europe would have had three structures readily available to them that could be
models for such a tower: the castle
tower, the church bell tower and the city gate tower. And, not surprisingly, these are what we
see during the middle ages and early portion of the Renaissance.
 |
| Ivory Relief, The Drunkeness of Noah and the Building the Tower of Babel Italian, 11th Century Salerno, Museo Diocesano San Matteo |
 |
| Mosaic of the Building of the Tower of Babel Italian, c. 1140-1170 Palermo, Cappella Palatina |
 |
| Mosaic of the Building of the Tower of Babel Italian, c. 1180s Monreale, Cathedral |
We are also
shown, through these images, some of the building techniques by which the great
achievements of medieval and Renaissance architecture were created.
 |
| Building the Tower of Babel From The Huntingfield Psalter Anglo-Norman (Oxford), c. 1212-1220_ New York, Pierpoint Morgan Library MS M 43, fol. 9v |
 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Building the Tower of Babel From Old Testament Miniatures French (Paris), c. 1244-1254 New York, Pierpont Morgan Library MS M 638, fol.3r
|
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,%201333-1334_BNF_MS%20Francais%20316,%20fol.%2049v_2.jpg)
,%20c.%201400_BNF_MS%20Francais%2021,%20fol.%2087r-2.jpg)
,%201400-1425_BNF_MS%20Francais%20226,%20fol.%208v_2.jpg)
,%20c.%201425-1450_BNF_MS%20Francais%20232,%20fol.%205r_2.jpg)
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,%20c.%201480-1482_BNF_MS%20Francais%208266,%20fol.%207r_2.jpg)
From the mid-fourteenth century it is probably safe to say that we begin to see traces of one of the most famous of all church bell towers, the one then being completed at Pisa, now known as the Leaning Tower of Pisa. Its colonnaded tiers can be traced in many of the illustrations of the story of the Tower of Babel in the coming years.
,%20ca.%201400_BNF_MS%20Francais%2023,%20fol.%20119v_2.jpg) |
+Nimrod Oversees the Building of the Tower of Babel From a De Civitate Dei by St. Augustine of Hippo French (Paris), c. 1400 Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France MS Francais 23, fol. 119v |
 |
Master of Jacques d'Armagnac, Building the Tower of Babel from La Bouquechardiere by Jean de Courcy French (Rouen), Before 1476 The Hague, Meermano Museum MS RMMW 10 A 17, fol. 184r |
,%20End%20of%20the%2015th%20Century_Paris,%20BNF_MS%20Francais%20250,%20fol.%2019r.jpeg) |
+Building the Tower of Babel From a Chroniques universelles Franch (Paris), End of the 15th Century Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France MS Francais 250, fol. 19r |
Another Model, the Pharos, the Most Famous
Lighthouse of Antiquity
As the
Renaissance matured, another model became more popular as interest in antiquity
increased. This was the famous Pharos,
the lighthouse of Alexandria, which was one of the seven wonders of the ancient
world. Memories of the Seven Wonders
were not lost during the middle ages. Indeed, the Pharos stood throughout much of
the middle ages, well into the fourteenth century. However, Egypt had been cut off from
Europe by the Arab conquest in the mid-seventh century. Nevertheless, some Europeans may have seen it
during the several Crusades that attempted to take the Holy Land by landing in Egypt
first.
Some of the images used as models were drawn from remnants of Greek and Roman art, which were being surveyed with fresh eyes at this time, some were completely fanciful. Even today there is little agreement about exactly what the famous lighthouse looked like in antiquity.
Some of the images used as models were drawn from remnants of Greek and Roman art, which were being surveyed with fresh eyes at this time, some were completely fanciful. Even today there is little agreement about exactly what the famous lighthouse looked like in antiquity.
 |
| Coin of Emperor Commodus Showing the Pharos Lighthouse Roman Provincial (Alexandria), c. 180-192 London, Trustees of the British Museum |
 |
| Mosaic of Pharos of Alexandria from Olbia, Libya Provincial Roman, c. 4th Century Libya, Qasr Libya Museum |
 |
| Ali ben Mahmud Rudbari, Pharos of Alexandria from Mudjmal al-Tavarih Iranian, 1410 Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France MS Persan 62, fol. 326 |
,%20c.%201460-1465_BNF_MS%20Francais%2064,%20fol.%20401r_2.jpg) | |
|
 |
Mosaic of St. Mark arriving in Alexandria
Italian, c. 1503-1515
Venice, Basilica di San Marco, Zen Chapel |
 |
Phillips Galle after Maarten van Heemskerck, The Pharos
Plate #2 of The Eight Wonders of the World
Dutch, 1572
London, British Museum
|
So, around the beginning of the fourteenth century some references to the Pharos begin to appear in the pictures of the building of the Tower of Babel. We begin to see the tower assume shapes that are neither square nor circular and we begin to see an attempt to suggest the terraced elevation of the Pharos, which harkens back to the shape of the ziggurat.
 |
| Tower of Babel (Explicacio de turri babel) from Chronologia magna by Paulinus of Venice Italy (Naples), after 1329 Paris, Bibliotheque nationale MS Lain 4939, fol. 12v |
 |
| Gregorio Dati, Torre Babel Italian (Florence), 1450-1499 New York, Pierpont Morgan Library MS M721, fol.17r |
,%201450-1550_BNF_MS%20Latin%209673,%20fol.%204r_2.jpg) |
| +Nimrod in front of the Tower of Babel (bottom left) Uomini Famosi from Chronica Figurata Italian (Rome or Naples), c. 1450-1550 Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France MS Latin 9673, fol. 4 |
Other Models Appear
At the same
time that interest in the Pharos was increasing, artists were also trying to
recapture what the world of antiquity might have looked like in its own
time. From about 1500 on there was a flurry of this kind of "archaeological" fantasy painting. It attracted the attention of one of the greatest Northern painters of the age, Pieter Brueghel the Elder, and became virtually a family business for the various members of the van Valckenborgh family of Flemish painters who were active around the end of the sixteenth and beginning of the seventeenth centuries.
 |
| Gerard Horenbout, Building the Tower of Babel From The Grimani Breviary Flemish, c. 1510-1520 Venice, Biblioteca Nazionale Marciana MS Lat. I 99, fol. 206r |
 |
| Giulio Clovio, The Tower of Babel From The Farnese Hours Italian, 1546 New York, Pierpont Morgan Library MS M 69, fol.104v |
 |
| Lucas van Valckenborgh, Tower of Babel Flemish, c. 1550 Paris, Musee du Louvre |
 |
| Lucas van Valckenborgh, Tower of Babel Flemish, c. 1550 Private Collection |
 |
| Probably from the Workshop of Guido Durantino Building of the Tower of Babel Italian (Urbino), c. 1550-1560 New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art |
 |
| Etienne Delaune, Building of the Tower of Babel French, c. 1560-1568 Philadelphia, Museum of Art |
 |
| Hendrick van Cleve III, The Tower of Babel Flemish, c. 1560 Private Collection |
 |
| Hendrick van Cleve, The Tower of Babel Flemish, 1560-1589 Hamburg, Hamburger Kunsthalle |
 |
| Pieter Brueghel the Elder, The Tower of Babel Flemish, 1563 Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum |
 |
| Pieter Brueghel the Elder, The "Little" Tower of Babel Flemish, c. 1564 Rotterdam, Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen |
 |
| Marten van Valckenborgh, The Tower of Babel Flemish, c. 1570-1600 Burnley, UK, Townley Hall Art Gallery and Museum |
 |
| Anonymous, The Tower of Babel French, 17th Century Paris, Musee du Louvre |
 |
| Anonymous. The Tower of Babel Flemish School, 17th Century Cambridgeshire UK, Anglesey Abbey |
 |
| Jan Christianenszoon Micker. The Tower of Babel Dutch, c. 1650 UK Government Art Collection |
 |
| The Tower of Babel Swiss (Zurich), 1631 London, Victoria and Albert Museum |
 |
| Mattia Bortoloni, The Construction of the Tower of Babel Italian, c. 1717-1718 Piombino Dese, Villa Cornaro |
 |
| Johann Ferdinand Schor, Nimrod and the Building of the Tower of Babel Austrian, c. 1720 Prague, Villa Amerika |
Most of their conjectures were fanciful, though they were drawn from reading the ancient texts that were becoming increasingly available through the growing use of the printing press. Views of the wonders of the world, such as those drawn by Maarten van Heemskerck and engraved by many other hands for well over a century, were popular and served as guides for other artists.
 |
| Phillips Galle after Maarten van Heemskerck, The Mausoleum of Hallicarnassus Plate #6 of The Eight Wonders of the World Dutch, 1572 London, Trustees of the British Museum |
 |
| Phillips Galle after Maarten van Heemskerck, The Colosseum Plate #8 of The Eight Wonders of the World Dutch, 1572 London, Trustees of the British Museum |
 |
| Phillips Galle after Maarten van Heemskerck, The Pyramids of Giza Plate #1 of The Eight Wonders of the World Dutch, 1572 London, Trustees of the British Museum |
Into the Modern World
Even though
the ancient world became more familiar to both artists and the public during
the 19th and 20th centuries, through the work of
archaeologists working in both the Egyptian and Ancient Near Eastern fields,
the image of the tower of Babel has remained somewhat fluid.
 |
| James Gillray. Overthrow of the Republican Babel English, 1809 London, Trustees of the British Museum A political satire that uses the destruction of the Tower to represent the events of the day. |
 |
| Edward Burne-Jones, Design for a Window English, 1857 London, The Victoria and Albert Museum |
 |
| James Tissot, Building the Tower of Babel French, c. 1896-1902 New York, The Jewish Museum |
Most works of the 20th century do bear some resemblance to the ziggurat shape, if only in the emphasis on terraced levels, but the Tower still seems a construct of the mind, rather than an archaeological document.
 |
| M. C. Escher, The Tower of Babel Dutch, 1928 London, Trustees of the British Museum |
 |
| Wendy Hodge, Tower of Babel, Docklands English, 1989 London, British Council Collection
Ms. Hodge uses the Biblical title as a commentary on the
wave of building that swept through London as the 20th century
ended.
|
 |
| Walid Siti, Tower of Babel Iraqi (Kurdish), 2001 London, Trustees of the British Museum |
Confusion and Dissolution versus Reconciliation and Unity
One further
thing needs to be said. The raison
d’etre of the story of the Tower of Babel is to demonstrate how the divisions
of humanity, for which the amazing variety of languages is a symptom, was the
result of mankind’s overwhelming pride in undertaking so great a worldly
project.
 |
| Jean Bondol and Others, God Gives Instructions for the Destruction of the Tower of Babel From a Bible historiale by Guiard des Moulins French (Paris), c. 1371-1372 The Hague, Meermano Museum MS MMW 10 B 23, fol. 19r |
 |
| The Bedford Master, Destruction of the Tower of Babel From The Bedford Hours French (Paris), c. 1410-1430 London, British Library MS Additional 18850, fol. 17v |
The three images below show how the artists of one studio responded to different commissions for the same material. They reused and adapted compositions and figures, altering the pose and size of the figures and modifying details.
 |
| The Master of the l'Echevinage and Workshop, Angels Attacking the Tower of Babel From a De Civitate Dei by Saint Augustine of Hippo French (Rouen), c. 1450-1475 Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France MS Francais 27, fol. 122r |
 |
| The Master of the Echevinage, Angels Attacking the Tower of Babel From a Chronique de la Bouquechardiere by Jean de Courcy French, (Rouen), c. 1450-1475 London, British Library MS Harley 4376, fol. 206v |
 |
| The Maitre de l'Echevinage, Angels Attacking the Tower of Babel From a La Bouquechardiere by Jean de Courcy French (Rouen), c. 1460 Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France MS Francais 20124, fol. 202r |
 |
| Master Francois, The Confusion of Tongues Begins From a De Civitate Dei by Saint Augustine of Hippo French (Paris), c. 1469-1473 Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France MS Francais 19, fol. 81v
(No angels attack the tower in this image, but banners proclaim the words of God and of Nimrod. Where the banner of God's speech has fallen, a fight has already broken out between workers in the background.)
|
However, the high middle ages and the Renaissance also looked for Biblical “types” whereby the stories of the Old Testament served as foreshadowings of events in the New Testament. And so it was for the Tower of Babel. From the fourteenth century on it became paired with a New Testament event, the Descent of the Holy Spirit on the Apostles at Pentecost.
,%20c.%201350_BNF_MS%20Francais%209561,%20fol.%2014v_2.jpg) |
| +The Destruction of the Tower of Babel and Descent of the Holy Spirit on the Apostles From a Bible moralisee Italian (Naples), c. 1350 Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France MS Francais 9561, fol. 14v |
,%20c.%201350_BNF_MS%20Ms-593%20r%C3%A9serve,%20Manuscript%20A,%20fol.%2028r_2.jpg) |
| + The Descent of the Holy Spirit and Building of the Tower of Babel From a Speculum humanae salvationis Italian (Bologna), c. 1350 Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France MS Arsenal 593 [ff.1-42], fol. 8r |
,%20c.%201370-1380_BNF_MS%20Latin%20511,%20fol.%2034v_2.jpg) |
| + The Descent of the Holy Spirit and God Watching the Building of the Tower of Babel From a Speculum humanae salvationis French (Alsace), c. 1370-1380 Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France MS Latin 511, fol. 34v |
One important
result of the Descent of the Holy Spirit was that the Apostles “were all filled
with the holy Spirit and began to speak in different tongues, as the Spirit
enabled them to proclaim” (Acts 2:4).
So, whereas the creation of different languages at the Tower of Babel
began the estrangement of human groups, one from another, the descent of the
Spirit, with its gift of different languages became a unifying element, drawing
all peoples into the salvation of the world through Christ and the Church.
 |
| Descent of the Holy Spirit and God Watching the Building of the Tower of Babel from Speculum humanae salvationis Swiss (Basle), 15th Century Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de Frnce MS Latin 512, fol. 35v |
For this reason, numerous examples exist in which the image of the confusion of the Tower of Babel sits side by side in works like the Speculum humanae salvationis (The Mirror of Human Salvation), a popular book of piety directed at the laity, andin Books of Hours, the popular prayer books used mainly by the laity.
 |
| The Descent of the Holy Spirit From the Rothschild Book of Hours Flemish (Ghent), c. 1500-1505 London, British Library MS Additional 35313, fol 33v |
 |
| Building the Tower of Babel From the Rothschild Book of Hours Flemish (Ghent), c. 1500-1505 London, British Library MS Additional 35313, fol 34r |
 |
| Possibly Simon Bening, The Descent of the Holy Spirit From The Grimani Breviary Belgian, c. 1510-1520 Venice, Biblioteca Nazionale Marciana MS Lat. I 99, fol. 205v |
 |
| Gerard Horenbout, Building the Tower of Babel From The Grimani Breviary Belgian, c. 1510-1520 Venice, Biblioteca Nazionale Marciana MS Lat. I 99, fol. 206r |
 |
| Giulio Clovio, The Descent of the Holy Spirit and the Building of the Tower of Babel From The Farnese Hours Italian (Rome), 1546 New York, Pierpont Morgan Library MS M 69, fols.106v-107r |
As with the side by side comparisons beloved in
art history lectures, the readers were trusted to understand the relationship
from the juxtaposition.
©
M. Duffy, 2017. Selected images refreshed 2025.
+ Indicates a refreshed image.
- Quentin D. Atkinson, “Phonemic Diversity Supports a Serial Founder Effect Model of Language Expansion from Africa”, Science, New Series, Vol. 332, No. 6027 (15 April 2011), American Association for the Advancement of Science, pp. 346-349. Also, W. Tecumseh Fitch, “Unity and diversity in human language”, Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol. 366, No. 1563, Evolution and human behavioural diversity, (12 February 2011), The Royal Society, pp. 376-388.
- Notes on Genesis 10 at http://www.usccb.org/bible/gn/10:10#01010008-
- Nimrod may be the Biblical name for a real person, “possibly Tukulti-Ninurta I (thirteenth century B.C.), the first Assyrian conqueror of Babylonia and a famous city-builder at home”. See note on Genesis 10:8-12 at http://www.usccb.org/bible/gn/10:10#01010008-1.
- See notes on Genesis 11 at http://www.usccb.org/bible/genesis/11
- For different interpretations of this story see Brent A. Strawn, “Holes in the Tower of Babel”, Oxford Biblical Studies Online at https://global.oup.com/obso/focus/focus_on_towerbabel/, Maria Cintorino “The Tower of Babel and the Struggle to Be Like God”, Crisis Magazine, November 7, 2016 at http://www.crisismagazine.com/2016/tower-babel-struggle-like-god and “Tower of Babel”, the Jewish Virtual Library at http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/tower-of-babel
- For the pyramids of Rome see: http://archeoroma.beniculturali.it/en/archaeological-site/pyramid-caius-cestius and http://www.atlasobscura.com/places/pyramid-of-cestius
Excerpts from the Lectionary
for Mass for Use in the Dioceses of the United States of America, second
typical edition © 2001, 1998, 1997, 1986, 1970 Confraternity of
Christian Doctrine, Inc., Washington, DC. Used with permission. All rights
reserved. No portion of this text may be reproduced by any means without
permission in writing from the copyright owner.
