"Hail Bright Cecilia!" -- Great Patroness of Harmony

Carlo Saraceni, Saint Cecilia and the Angel

Italian, ca. 1610

Rome, Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Antica

"Saint Cecilia kept the Gospel of Christ ever near her heart; day and night she never ceased praying and speaking with God."

Antiphon for Evening Prayer on the Feast of Saint Cecilia





Although we have few concrete details about her life and martyrdom, Cecilia of Rome has been one of the most popular saints of the Church in all the centuries since the 4th.



The date of her martyrdom is uncertain. It may be as early as the time of Marcus Aurelius in the mid-2nd century or as late as the time of Diocletian in the early 4th, only about 10 years before the Edict of Milan gave recognition to the Christian Church.










What we do know is that, as early as the years immediately after the Edict of Milan, she was one of the most respected of the Roman martyrs. What was probably her home was one of the early Roman “house churches”, called tituli. And, by the 5th century her name is among the list of martyrs cited in the Roman Canon, the principal Eucharistic Prayer of the Mass, along with other male and female saints, such as Lawrence, Clement, Sixtus, Cornelius, Agnes, Anastasia, Felicity and Perpetua. 1

Carlo Saraceni, Execution of Saint Cecilia

Italian, ca. 1610

Los Angeles, Los Angeles County Museum of Art

Her name, Cecilia, derives (as the names of Roman women always did) from her family name, in this case the Caecilii (for a male family member the form would be Caecilius, which survives in the English given name, Cecil). Presumably, Saint Cecilia was a member of this prominent, noble, old Roman family. She undoubtedly also had another, personal name, which is now lost.

 

 

 

Legends

Legends surround her life and death, although it is entirely possible that some of them may, in fact, be true. We simply don’t have the documentation to know for sure. The best-known tale is that as a young bride, vowed to perpetual virginity, she converted both her husband, Valerian, and her brother-in-law, Tiburtius, themselves prominent Romans, to the Christian faith and that, for this reason, both they and she suffered martyrdom.

Master of the Pesaro Crucifix, Saint Cecilia of Rome and Her Husband, Valerian, Being Crowned by an Angel
Italian, c. 1375-1380
Philadelphia, Museum of Art

*Guillaume Vrelant and Workshop, Saints Valerian and Cecilia Confront the Old Man

From a Speculum historiale by Vincent of BEauvais

Flemish (Bruges), c. 1455

Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France

MS Francais 309, fol. 117v

The Legneda aurea by Jacobus de Voragine tells the story of Saints Cecilia, her husband and brother-in-law in typically medieval style.  Upon her marriage to Valerian Cecilia converted him.  In his search for someone to baptism him he encountered a mysterious old man who appeared with "a book written with letters of gold".  The book read:  "One God, one faith, one baptism, one God and father of all, above all, and in us all, everywhere".  Valerian was asked for his assent, the old man then disappeared and Valerian was accepted as a candidate for baptism.  I presume that this is the inspiration for this image.1

*Master Francois and Workshop, Saints Cecilia, Valerian and Tibertius

From a Speculum hiustoiriale by Vincent of Beauvais

French (Paris), 1463

Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France

MS Francias 51, fol. 8r

This stylish image presents a more usual marriage situation. 

*Saints Cecilia and Valerian Crowned for Martyrdom While Saints Tiburtius and Urban Look On

_From a Legenda aurea by Jacobus de Voragine

French (Paris), c. 1480-1490

Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France

MS Francais 245, fol. 179v

This is another reference to the mysterious old man with the scroll of gold letters.  Here the scroll clearly reads "One God, one faith, one baptism".

Martyrdom

*The Master of the Roman de Fauvel Workshop,  The Martyrdom of Saint Cecilia

From  a Vies des saints

French (Paris), c. 1300-1350

Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France

MS Francais 183, fol. 96v

By tradition the first attempt at killing her was to suffocate her in a hot bath. I had always thought this was a weird way to kill someone until I learned that the Empress Fausta, Constantine’s second wife, was reported to have been killed by this technique. Perhaps it was a Roman way to execute high born women. However, while it may have succeeded with Fausta, in Cecilia’s case it failed. Instead, she was killed by a more conventional manner, beheading.

The chosen executioner must have been incompetent because, according to tradition, he hacked at her neck three times, wounding her, but leaving her still alive. Such an incomplete beheading might well have left her alive and conscious, though probably at least partly paralyzed, for some time.

According to the story, she lived for three days, giving her enough time to make gifts to the poor of Rome and to donate her residence to the Church. It is certainly possible that this event may actually have happened, although the three days may be more a reference to the Passion and Resurrection of Christ than to a real time span. However, a slow death lasting from several hours to one or two days could be reasonable. Legend has it that she also sang hymns during this time, which, while remotely possible, is unlikely. 2

Luc Olivier Merson, The Dying Saint Cecilia Distributing Her Wealth to the Poor of Rome
Design for a Window
French, 1886
Paris, Musée d'Orsay

Her body was buried in a place of honor in the catacomb of Saint Callistus.

Luis de Madrazo y Kuntz, Burial of Saint Cecilia in the Catacomb of Saint Callistus
Spanish, 1852
Madrid, Museo Nacional del Prado

In the 4th century a church was constructed above what probably had been her home, the titulus Caeciliae, now known as Santa Cecilia in Trastevere. Remains of the original Roman buildings have been found under the church foundations and can be visited. 

Facade, Santa Cecilia in Trastevere
Italian, 5th through 19th centuries
Rome, Piazza Santa Cecilia

 

 Discovery

In the 9th century, coinciding with the renovation of the church, her body was removed from the catacomb and placed in the church.

The church has been renovated several times, most recently in the 19th century.

In connection with one of these renovations, in 1599, her remains were examined and found to be intact. The sculptor Stefano Maderno was commissioned to carve a statue recording how it looked. He engraved a marble plaque testifying that he had reproduced exactly what he had seen. In translation it reads:
"Behold the body of the most holy virgin Cecilia, whom I myself saw lying incorrupt in the tomb. I have in this marble expressed for you the same saint in the very same posture".

Stefano Maderno, Tomb of Saint Cecilia
Italian, 1600
Rome, Santa Cecilia in Trastevere

Maderno’s white marble figure lies in front of the main altar of the church (which is crowned with a beautiful baldachino by Arnolfo da Cambio, which dates to around 1290). It gives dramatic testimony to Cecilia’s death. She lies, face down, on her right side. Her hair is thrown forward, revealing the deep cuts in her neck. Her fingers have been arranged to deliver a message. Three fingers of her right hand are extended, as is one finger of her left. She is signaling belief in the mystery of the Trinity, of the Three in One.

Stefano Maderno, Saint Cecilia (detail)

This elegant and moving white sculpture is strikingly set into a stone framework of brilliant blue lapis lazuli, with gilded decorations of angels and the figures of other, related, saints. It stands at the beginning of the Baroque period, with its emphasis on presenting the reality of the suffering of the martyrs. 3


Stefano Maderno, St. Cecilia
Rome, Santa Cecilia in Trastevere

Cecilia the Patron of Music

However, it is her association with singing and, by extension with all music, for which she is chiefly remembered. It has made her the patron saint of music and musicians and one of the best known subjects in the history of art.

Her connection to music is very old.  However, many early pictures depicted the scenes of her life, without any reference to music.

Master of Saint Cecilia, Saint Cecilia Altarpiece
Italian, c. 1304
Florence, Galleria degli Uffizi

The smaller pictures on the sides depict the life of Saint Cecilia and her first martyrdom (execution by hot bath).  There are no references to music.

A series of pictures in the fifteenth century depict her with a bird, probably reflecting that by this time she was associated with singing.

Masters of  Zweder van Culenborg, Saint Cecilia with a Bird
From a Book of Hours
Dutch (Utrecht), c. 1430-1435
The Hague, Koninklijk Bibliotheek
MS KB 79 K 2, fol. 264v

Master of Catherine of Cleves, Saints Agnes of Rome and Cecilia of Rome
From a Prayer Book
Dutch (Utrecht), 1438
The Hague, Museum Meermano
MS RMMW 10 E 1, fol. 89v

Attributed to the Painter of the Brunswick Diptych, Saint Cecilia
Dutch, c. 1490-1500
Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum

Saints Agnes of Rome and Cecilia of Rome
From a Prayer Book
Flemish (Malines), c. 1500-1510
The Hague, Koninklijk Bibliotheek
MS KB 71 G 53, fol. 96v

Cornelis Engebrechtszoon, Saint Cecilia and Her Fiance
Dutch, c. 1518-1520
Budapest, Szépmûvészeti Múzeum

However, by the sixteenth century, the principle attribute of Saint Cecilia is a musical instrument.  Organs have prime place, first as small portative organs and later, as the organ developed, case instruments.  But, unlike Maderno’s simply clad figure, or the simple image of the early pictures, most of these turn her into a fantasy figure. She appears in various headgear and dress, often very elaborate and exotic.

Master of the Saint Bartholemew Altar, Saints Agnes, Bartholomew and Cecilia
German, c. 1500-1505
Munich, Alte Pinakothek

Raphael. Saint Cecilia Altarpiece
Italian, 1514
Bologna, Pinacoteca Nazionale

Saint Cecilia
Flemish, c. 1550-1560
Antwerp, Museum Mayer van den Bergh

Jacopo Vignali, Saint Cecilia
Italian, 1562
Dublin, National Gallery of Ireland

Here what appear to be two ladies of Cecilia's own class, turn out, on second look, to be two angels.

Michiel Coxie, Saint Cecilia
Flemish,  1569
Madrid, Museo Nacional del Prado

Antiveduto della Grammatica, Saint Cecilia
Italian, After 1611
Madrid, Museo Nacional del Prado

Orazio Gentileschi and Giovanni Lanfranco, Saint Cecilia and an Angel
Italian, c. 1617-1618 and c. 1621-1627
Washington, National Gallery of Art

Guercino, Saint Cecilia
Italian, c. 1620-1640
Paris, Musée du Louvre

Guillaume Perrier, Saint Cecilia with an Angel
French, c. 1630-1640
Lyon, Musée des Beaux-Arts

Pietro da Cortona, Saint Cecilia
Italian, c. 1620-1626
London, National Gallery

Simon Vouet, Saint Cecilia
French, 1626
Austin, TX, Blanton Museum of Art

Jacques Stella, Saint Cecilia
French, 1626
Rennes, Musée des Beaux-Arts

Nicolas Poussin, Saint Cecilia
French, c. 1635
Madrid, Museo Nacional del Prado

Peter Paul Rubens, Saint Cecilia
Flemish, c. 1639-1640
Berlin, Gemäldegalerie der Staatliche Museen zu Berlin

Jacques Blanchard, Saint Cecilia

French, 1630s

St. Petersburg, Hermitage Museum

Jacques Stella, Saint Cecilia Playing the Organ

French, c. 1640

Paris, Musée du Louvre

Arnould de Vuez, Saint Cecilia
Flemish, c. 1700-1720
Lille, Palais des Beaux-Arts

Paul Delaroche, Saint Cecilia and the Angels
French, 1836
London, Victoria and Albert Museum

Edward Burne-Jones, Saint Cecilia
English, 1890s
Private Collection

John Melhuish Strudwick, Saint Cecilia
English, 1896
Liverpool (UK), Sudley House

Numerous other paintings also honor her, depicting her with a variety of instruments.  .Here too she appears as an exotic. An angel or angels may be in attendance as well.

Guido Reni, Saint Cecilia

Italian, 1606

Pasadena, Norton Simon Museum

Artemisia Gentileschi, Saint Cecilia

Italian, ca. 1616

Rome, Galleria Spada

Domenichino, Saint Cecilia with an Angel Holding a Musical Score
Italian, c. 1617-1618
Paris, Musée de Louvre

Bernardo Cavallino, Saint Cecilia
Italian, c. 1645
Boston, Musseum of Fine Arts

Francesco Solimena, Saint Cecilia
Italian, c. 1740
Pommersfelden (DE), Schloss Weissenstein

Luigi Vanvitelli, Saint Cecilia
Italian, c. 1750
Bradford (UK), Cartwright Hall Art Gallery

Occasionally scenes from her life, especially of her martyrdom were depicted.  Sometimes her husband and fellow martyr, Valerianus, and his brother, Tiburtius, also martyred, appear with her.

Domenichino, Saint Cecilia Before the Judge Refuses to Sacrifice to Idols
Italian, c. 1612-1615
Rome, San Luigi dei Francesi, Cappella Polet

The Martyrdom of Saint Cecilia
From a Book of Hours
Spanish, 17th Century
Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France
MS Latin 10565, fol. 92v

Orazio Gentileschi, Saints Cecilia, Valerianus and Tiburtius
Italian, ca. 1620
Milan, Brera Gallery

Claude Michel, known as Clodion, Death of Saint Cecilia
French, c. 1776-1777
Rouen, Cathedral of Notre-Dame, Chapel of Saint Nicolas

Johann Evangelist Scheffer von Leonharshoff, Death of Saint Cecilia
Austrian, 1820-1822
Vienna, Belvedere Museum

Etienne Gautier, Dead Saint Cecilia
French, c. 1878
Paris, Musée d'Orsay

Francesco Francia, Burial of Saint Cecilia
Italian, c. 1504-1506
Bologna, Church of San Giacomo Maggiore, Oratory of Saint Cecilia,

In addition, she has been honored in many musical compositions, such as the 1692 “Ode to Saint Cecilia” by Henry Purcell (closing chorus below). Her name appears in the names of not only churches, but in the Academia di Santa Cecilia in Rome, organized in 1585 as a musicians guild, as well as in numerous contemporary choral groups, orchestras, concert series. She is commemorated on November 22nd.

Hail! Bright Cecilia, Hail to thee!

Great Patroness of Us and Harmony!

Who, whilst among the Choir above

Thou dost thy former Skill improve,

With Rapture of Delight dost see

Thy Favourite Art

Make up a Part

Of infinite Felicity.

Hail! Bright Cecilia, Hail to thee!

Great Patroness of Us and Harmony!

_______________________________________

1. Kirsch, Johann Peter. "St. Cecilia." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 3. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03471b.htm

2. The Golden Legend or Lives of the Saints. Compiled by Jacobus de Voragine, Archbishop of Genoa, 1275. First Edition Published 1470. Englished by William Caxton, First Edition 1483, Edited by F.S. Ellis, Temple Classics, 1900 (Reprinted 1922, 1931.) http://www.fordham.edu/Halsall/basis/goldenlegend/GoldenLegend-Volume6.asp#Cecilia

3. Wittkower, Rudolf. Art and Architecture in Italy, 1600 to 1750, Pelican History of Art, Baltimore, Penguin Books, 1965, p. 84.

© M. Duffy, 2011, updated 2017

2024 Selected images updated and new image added. 2025 new images added.

+ Indicates an updated image

* Indicates a new image added

Basilicas of Saints Peter and Paul – November 18

St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican City

During this month of November the Church commemorates the construction and dedication to Christian worship of some of the earliest structures specifically built for that purpose. In her first three centuries Christians had been meeting in whatever location they could find that was suitable for the purpose of performing the developing liturgy. This might be in a private house, in a meeting hall or in buildings such as apartment houses, owned by members and renovated to provide space for the congregation and the priest. (In Rome, these were the tituli, some of which still survive through the churches constructed later on top of them.)  There were also gathering places in association with the graves of the deceased, especially of the highly venerated martyrs, in locations such as the catacombs of Rome or in other, open air cemeteries in Rome and elsewhere. But none of these were on anything like a par with the temples of the Greek, Roman or other religious cults of the time.

It was not until Constantine, the Augustus of the West, and his co-Augustus, Licinius, issued the Edict of Milan in October of 312 that the Christian Church could contemplate creating large, purpose built structures for the liturgy. As we have seen, one of the earliest of these structures, the Church of St. John Lateran, was begun almost immediately after the issue of the Edict, with the active involvement of Constantine himself. Similarly, at about the same time (319-324), another huge basilica was under construction across the Tiber River. In this location there was an open air cemetery on a hill a short distance from the banks of the river. It overlooked a road and a circus (racecourse) built by Caligula, but then known as the Circus of Nero. Nearby was the large circular tomb of the Emperor Hadrian.

Model of the "Trophy of Gaius" over the burial place of St. Peter in the necropolis 

underneath the basilica.

St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican

This cemetery was not very different from our own contemporary American cemeteries. There were numerous mausoleums, owned by rich families, and there were humble graves, set directly into the earth.

One of these simple graves was special to the Christians of Rome and to Christian visitors, as indicated by the inscriptions found all around it. In it was buried Peter, leader of the first Apostles, and first bishop of Rome, who had died in the persecution of Nero.

He had been crucified (upside down according to tradition) in the circus just across the road, and his body had been carried into the cemetery where he was buried. Within a short time after his death a small marble monument, resembling a miniature temple façade, was erected over the grave (see model at right).

As Richard Krautheimer, the great historian of early Christian architecture, points out, it was only the graffiti that surrounded the location that makes this resting place different from hundreds of others in the cemeteries surrounding Rome.1  For, the inscriptions indicate that the man buried in this commonplace grave was Peter, leader of the Apostles and first bishop of Rome, the “Rock” on whom Jesus said that He would build the Church.2


The importance of the grave to Christians can be clearly seen in the way in which Constantine’s architects planned the new building. With Imperial power behind them, they leveled the hill, removing the roofs of the private mausoleums and filling the shells with the dirt and debris of their excavation. Above the grave of Peter they constructed the altar, the focal point of the huge new basilica.

This basilica stood for over a thousand years, until in the late 15th century the decision was made to replace it with a new church. 

While Constantine’s building rose in less than 10 years, it took nearly a century to build the new one, which we see today.

The “new” St. Peter’s was built over the Constantinian basilica and there is one constant point of reference. The altar of today still stands directly over the grave in the Roman cemetery. The “Rock” still lies in the deepest layer. 3

This cross section of St. Peter's shows the three layers we see today:  at the top in brown ink is the current basilica, below that in black ink are the remains of the Constantinian basilica (now called the grottoes and open to the public), at the lowest layer in purple ink is the necropolis, where the tomb of the Apostle lies.  It may be visited by appointment.  Below the cross-section is the plan of the excavated parts of the necropolis.

Another look at the relation of the layers of St. Peter's through a comparison of floor plans.  In red we can see the layout of the necropolis, on top of this is the straight lines of the basilica of Constantine in purple, with radiating chapels built out of it that are shown in green, and finally we can see the huge outline of the current church.

The original St. Peter’s was destroyed in the process of building the current structure, but we can get some idea of how it looked from old drawings. 

Cross section of old St. Peter's

Maerten van Heemskerck, St. Peter's Basilica
Dutch, c.1535
Berlin, Staatliche Museen

In addition we can gain an idea of what it was like by looking at the second building that the Church commemorates today – the Basilica of St. Paul-outside-the –walls.

Basilica of St. Paul-outside-the-walls
Rome

This basilica was constructed about 70 years after St. Peter’s and appears to have been based on it. 4 Built over the resting place of St. Paul, the great missionary to the Gentiles, it stood for 1,500 years before partially succumbing to a fire in 1823.   The nave was badly damaged, but the apse was barely touched.

Engraving of the aftermath of the 1823 fire

It is fortunate that its destruction came so late in time. Had it occurred in an earlier era the building would doubtless have been rebuilt in a contemporary style, just as had happened to the other great early Christian churches of Rome. But, the damage came after a full century of archaeological exploration had placed a high value on the style of past ages. Hence, it was reconstructed to look exactly as it had before the fire and reconsecrated in 1854.

The bones of Saint Paul lie underneath the main altar. In 2006 the sarcophagus containing them was uncovered for the first time in centuries and can be seen through an opening below the altar.5

St. Paul-outside-the-walls, Interior
Rome

In St. Paul’s we can gain a good idea of what the Constantinian churches looked like. These were simple structures with long naves (central part of the church), side aisles and a semi-circular apse at the end opposite the entrance. The interior space is vast and clear, obviously intended to handle large crowds of worshippers. It was also richly decorated. In front of the building there is an open space called the atrium, surrounded by colonnades.

These were significant structures, intended by their Imperial sponsors to make a statement about the importance of Christianity and of the persons buried underneath them. 6
_______________________________________
1. Krautheimer, Richard. Rome, Profile of a City, 312-1308, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 2000, p. 20.

2. Some relevant texts: Matthew 16:18-19, John 20:1-10, Acts 1:15-22, 2:14-40, 3:12-26, 4:8-12, Chapters 10 and 11.

3. It is possible to visit this subterranean world by applying to join a tour group through the Vatican Office of Excavations (the Ufficio di Scavi). Information at http://www.vaticanstate.va/EN/Monuments/Saint_Peters_Basilica/Pre_Constantinian_Necropolis.htm.

4. Krautheimer, op cit., pp. 42-45.

5. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/12/061211-saint-paul.html

6. You can participate in virtual visits to these two churches, plus other papal basilicas and chapels at http://www.vatican.va/various/basiliche/index_en.html The speed of the servers seem to vary greatly by location.

© M. Duffy, 2011

Drawings from the Revolution

Jacques-Louis David, Sketch for
Intervention of the Sabine Women in the Fight
Between the Sabines and the Romans
French, 1798-1799
Drawing (graphite, pen and black ink on paper)
Paris, Louvre

Currently, the Morgan Library in New York is offering two special and complementary exhibitions. The largest is an exhibition of 80 drawings on loan from the Louvre Museum in Paris, called David, Delacroix and Revolutionary France: Drawings from the Louvre.* The smaller, Ingres at the Morgan, focuses on 16 drawings taken from the Morgan’s own collection. Both exhibitions are a reminder of a revolutionary time in history, i.e., the years of the French Revolution, and the revolution in art that accompanied it. They focus on the artists who were the witnesses of the former and the actors in the latter.

In these two exhibitions we can chart the threads of artistic expression that carried art in France from the end of the Rococo era, just prior to the French Revolution, through the Neo-Classical phase, which ran concurrently with the Revolution and the First French Empire (Napoleon), and into the Romantic era, with its focus on the exotic, the emotional and the natural world. Indeed, it can be argued that the Neo-Classical style is simply another form of the predominant Romanticism of the period, a different mode of the exotic.

Viewing the drawings from the Louvre is like taking a walk through the history of early 19th century French art. All the important artists, and many of the lesser known, are included: David, Gerard, Gericault, Girodet, Granet, Gros, Ingres. But the most revealing are the many drawings by Delacroix that are included.

Eugene Delacroix, Study for
Liberty Leading the People,
French, 1830
Drawing, Graphite with chalk on paper
Paris, Louvre

Eugene Delacroix is, par excellence, the artist of the Romantic era. His paintings of exotic scenes, based on his travels in North Africa, his portrayal of scenes charged with violence and strong emotions made him the acknowledged leader of the Romantic painters and one of the most influential painters in Europe.

His amazing versatility is strongly apparent in this exhibition. Where the drawings of other artists are mainly finished sketches for compositions or drawings of details, Delacroix’ drawings run through an astonishing range. There are carefully detailed drawings of nearly finished scenes. Others are quick sketches of landscape and architecture. Still others are studies for details of figures.

But the really astonishing drawings are of pure motion, the first such drawings I have ever seen outside of the studies of whirlpools and clouds by Leonardo da Vinci. But, whereas the Leonardo drawings examine natural forces, Delacroix’ are focused on human activity.

Delacroix, Study for The Death of Sardanapalus
French, 1826-1827
Drawing, Pen, brown ink, brown wash on paper
Paris, Louvre

Through these drawings Delacroix appears to be working his way toward the highly active scenes for which he is famous. The variety of moods in his drawings reveals much about how his mind worked and they are fascinating to observe. I gained a whole new outlook on and respect for Delacroix from this exhibition.

If Delacroix was the leader of those Romantic whose mode was centered on the “sublime”, Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres was the leader of the other wing, the Neo-Classicists. Characterized by calm, clear-edged lines and compositions, the Neo-Classicists took their subjects from both contemporary life and the distant past. Thus, the accompanying exhibition of Ingres’ drawings, taken from the Morgan’s own collection is an interesting supplement to the main exhibition.

Jean-Dominique Ingres,
Frau Reinhold and Her Daughters
French, 1815
Drawing, Graphite on paper
New York, Morgan Library

In it, one can see fine examples of Ingres work, especially of his works recording contemporary life, i.e., as a portraitist. This exhibition can be viewed online at http://www.themorgan.org/collections/works/ingres/default.asp

The Ingres exhibition will run until November 27th. The exhibition from the Louvre runs throughout the Christmas season, ending on New Year’s Eve. If you’re in the New York area during the season, I urge you to take a break from the shopping or sightseeing and visit them.

* For more information about this exhibition see: http://www.themorgan.org/exhibitions/exhibition.asp?id=49

© M. Duffy, 2011

November 1 – Feast of All Saints

Celestial Rose, Illustration to Canto XXXII of
Paradiso, Third Book of the Divine Comedy
by Dante Alighieri
15th-Century Italian
Vatican City State, Vatican Library

On November 1 the Church celebrates the feast of All Saints. On this day we honor all those who through their lives, lived in faith and hope and with charity, have achieved the Beatific Vision of God. Some of them are saints who have been identified and formally recognized by the Church, but most are simply men, women and children who have passed without formal recognition and whose names are now forgotten. They are our ancestors in faith exactly as they are our ancestors in flesh and blood. They enjoy the peace, the glory and the vision of God that we hope eventually to attain.

For obvious reasons it is difficult to represent all the saints in art, but there are some works that come to mind.

The first is the literary image of the Celestial Rose from Canto XXXII of Paradiso, the final book of Dante’s Divine Comedy. Every saint in heaven has his or her seat in the petals of this rose. Representing this in art is impossible, but a 15th-century Italian manuscript now in the Vatican Library gives an idea of what it might look like.









A diagram of how Dante imagined the interior of the rose to accommodate the saints within its petals was prepared in connection with the publication of Dorothy Sayers' English translation of 1962.










The next image that comes to mind is the exquisite altarpiece by the Van Eyck brothers, Hubert and Jan in the cathedral of St. Bavo in Ghent. Known as the Ghent Altarpiece, its lower half represents the Adoration of the Mystic Lamb. Its inspiration comes from the description in the Book of Revelation of the Triumph of the Lamb (Rev. 7:9-10):

“After this I had a vision of a great multitude, which no one could count, from every nation, race, people, and tongue. They stood before the throne and before the Lamb, wearing white robes and holding palm branches in their hands.
They cried out in a loud voice:
“Salvation comes from our God, who is seated on the throne,
and from the Lamb.”

Hubert and Jan Van Eyck, Adoration of the Lamb, Lower Section of Altarpiece Interior

The Ghent Altarpiece

Netherlandish, 1425-1432

Ghent, Cathedral of St. Bavo

In the Van Eycks’ painting, which extends over five panels, the Lamb on the altar (who is Christ, especially Christ in the Sacrament of the Altar, the Eucharist) occupies the central position of the central panel. He is surrounded by angels holding the instruments of the Passion through which He has triumphed over death. Two kneeling angels incense Him. Two groups kneel before Him. To the left are the Old Testament prophets and heroes. To the right are the Apostles, Fathers and other male saints. Advancing from the distance are two other groups; additional male saints from the left and female saints, some of whom carry the martyr’s palm, from the right. In the side panels more saints advance. In the background we can see the New Jerusalem, composed of a combination of actual buildings from several towns and imaginary ones.

A final image is that of Albrecht Dürer’s Landauer Altarpiece, the Adoration of the Trinity. Clearly deriving from the same inspiration as the Van Eycks’ picture, Dürer interpreted the text less literally. He replaces the Lamb with the image of the Trinity and places the scene in the skies. But, the essentials of the image are the same; God is surrounded by His saints.

Albrecht Durer, Adoration of the Holy Trinity
German, 1511
Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum

These are the images of what we celebrate today.

© M. Duffy, 2011

Paintings As Scientific Documents?

After Frans Hals, Malle Babbe
Dutch, Second quarter of 17th century
New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art

This past week has seen me sick with some viral bug that is making the rounds of New York City. So, this essay is a bit late and for that I apologize. I was going to write a review of the small exhibition of the work of the 17th-century Dutch painter Frans Hals that is currently at the Metropolitan Museum.1

The exhibition is primarily based on the Met’s own collection of his works. I have visited it several times and had been saving writing a review until a period when subject matter might be scarce. 

 

 

Unfortunately, I waited too long. When I checked the exhibition dates today, I discovered that—gasp—it closes on Monday (October 10, one of the Met’s rare holiday Monday openings). So, unless you are in the New York area and can get to the Met by closing time Monday, it will be too late.

Since that is the case I am going to shift this essay from a straightforward review of the Hals exhibition to some musings on an issue that arises from one painting that is included in the show. This is the picture known as “Malle Babbe”. Once considered to be the original it was reassessed some time ago and is now considered to be a copy after Hals. 

A nearly identical portrait of the same person now in the Gemäldegalerie in Berlin has been recognized as the true Hals original (click for high resolution image). The two paintings are extremely closely related, as a side by side comparison between details of the Met’s version and the Berlin version in the final room of the exhibition demonstrates (the Berlin painting is represented only by reproductions of details). If a copy, the Met’s painting is the work of an artist who was able to copy not only Hals’ composition, but his technique as well. It is an intriguing problem for the connoisseur.

Frans Hals, Malle Babbe
Dutch, c. 1631-1633
Berlin, Gemaeldegalerie

 

 

However, what I’ve been reflecting on is not the painting itself, but its subject matter. Malle Babbe was the popular name for a woman who was an inmate in the workhouse in Haarlem, the town where Hals lived. The owl on her shoulder, a symbol of wisdom in classical antiquity, had become by this time the symbol for a fool. 2 The fact that there are several versions or copies of this painting is very suggestive. It accords with other paintings of such human oddities found in the work of other 17th century painters. 
 
Clearly, there was an interest in recording the appearance of unusual people during this century that sets it apart from earlier periods. And this accords with the rise of scientific inquiry in the 17th century. This is the century that begins with the work of Galileo. It also includes the Vatican led reform of the calendar (change from the old Roman Julian calendar to the more scientifically correct Gregorian calendar, named for Pope Gregory XIII) and the development of complex mathematics such as calculus by Leibniz and Newton. It concludes with the publication of Isaac Newton’s Principia (1687).

 

 
In the world of 17th-century Dutch painting, it also includes Vermeer’s experiments with the camera obsura that give his work such immediacy.

Johannes Vermeer, Girl with a Red Hat
Dutch, c. 1665-1666
Washington, D.C., National Gallery of Art

Johannes Vermeer, Woman with a Water Jug
Dutch, c. 1662
New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art

It would appear that part of the burgeoning of science in the 17th century was an interest in human diversity. And this is true not only in the Protestant Netherlands but also in Catholic Italy and Spain. Paintings exist whose subject matter is not just the insane, but dwarfs and other human oddities.

In Spain, Diego Velazquez painted several portraits of the dwarfs who served as members of the Spanish royal household.

Diego Velazquez, Dwarf known as Don Antonio el Ingles,
Spanish, c. 1640-1642
Madrid, Museo Nacional del Prado

  

 

 

 

 

 

Diego Velazquez, Dwarf known as Sebastian de Morra
Spanish, c. 1641-1642
Madrid, Museo Nacional del Prado

In the 17th century many “little people” served in this capacity, as entertainers and as servant “pets” to royal masters.  Today, this may seem undignified and even cruel but, in the world 400 years ago, for a small person unable to find work in occupations that required stature, strength or stamina, this may have been a blessing.



Jusepe Ribera, Boy with a Clubfoot
Spanish, 1642
Paris, Musee du Louvre

In southern Italy for example, the transplanted Spanish painter Jusepe Ribera painted the portrait of a boy with a clubfoot.  His deformity is clearly visible, but so is his engaging, cheeky personality. 

Ribera also painted the portrait of a most unusual family, a bearded woman with her husband and baby.
 

Jusepe Ribera, Magdalena Venturi with Her Husband and Son
Spanish, 1631
Toledo, Museo Fundacion Duque de Lerma

Today these paintings may seem bizarre, but we ourselves are barely removed from the carnival freak show in which people like these would have been on exhibit.

Rather than viewing these pictures with disdain or anger I suspect that we should view them as interesting documents of a burgeoning scientific point of view.


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1. Metropolitan Museum of Art, Frans Hals in the Metropolitan Museum, July 26 – October 10, 2011, http://www.metmuseum.org/exhibitions/listings/2011/frans-hals-in-the-metropolitan-museum

2. Metropolitan Museum of Art, Catalogue Entry, http://www.metmuseum.org/Collections/search-the-collections/110001071?rpp=20&pg=1&ft=malle+babbe&pos=1

© M. Duffy, 2011

St. Francis of Assisi

Giotto ?, Sermon to the Birds
Italian, 1297-1300
Assisi, Basilica of St. Francis, Upper Level

A bout of something very much resembling the flu has prevented me from doing the research for the full-length essay on the iconography of St. Francis, which I had planned. But St. Francis is such an important and beloved saint that I can’t let his feast day pass without some acknowledgment. So, I will just point you to the extensive series of frescoes painted, shortly after his death, in the upper church of the basilica in his honor at Assisi.

The story of St. Francis is relatively well known. Perhaps no saint in the history of the Christian Church in the West has been so influential, so beloved, so misunderstood. From his own time to the present he has been made the subject of legends and stories. He has even been the subject of several movies. He is the goofy saint who talks to animals, the holy fool, the proto-hippie, sometimes seen as slightly mad. Yet, in reality his story and his joyful attempt to imitate Christ by a life of poverty, humility and service to the poor, is the spark that has ignited many souls to search for God and spend their own lives in serving the poor.

The Young Francis Receives a Vision While Praying
Italian, 1297-1300
Assisi, Basilica of St. Francis, Upper Level

The outlines of his real life story are fairly well known. Francesco Bernadone was born in the Umbrian town of Assisi in 1182 into a family of merchants. As a youth he had a fairly privileged and sheltered life. During a period of illness in 1205 he underwent the beginnings of a conversion to a more spiritual life and began to try to serve the poor.

Following his understanding of the message he had received in a vision, Francis sold some of his father’s stock of cloth to begin the task of rebuilding a ruined church on the outskirts of their town. His father was, understandably, angry about this and the ensuing battle of wills led Francis to renounce all worldly possessions and attachments, even the clothing he wore.



Francis Renounces Worldly Possessions
Italian, 1297-1300
Assisi, Basilica of St. Francis, Upper Level

 Attired in garments he acquired by begging, Francis began his life of total poverty, begging his clothing, food and the building materials with which he repaired various local churches. He also began to preach the joy of poverty and service in imitation of Christ and to attract other men to follow him.

In 1209 he drew up a simple rule for his “friars” and requested Papal approval. Pope Innocent III eventually agreed and in 1210 the Franciscan Order of Friars Minor was recognized by the Church.

The Rule is Confirmed by Pope Innocent III
Italian, 1297-1300
Assisi, Basilica of St. Francis, Upper Level

With St. Clare of Assisi he also founded the order of women that became known as the Poor Clares. Later, for those who wanted to associate themselves with him and his ideas he founded the Third Order for ordinary people not able or willing to leave their secular lives. All three orders still exist to this day. They have also sprouted a sometimes bewildering group of branches as well. In addition to several different Catholic sets of Franciscan friars and sisters there are Anglican and other Protestant Franciscans.

Giotto ?, St. Francis Receives the Stigmata,
Italian, 1297-1300
Assisi, Basilica of St. Francis, Upper Level

Francis is the first known person to receive the Stigmata, the visible wounds of Christ. He died on October 3, 1226 and was formally canonized two years later.


 That same year, 1228, a magnificent two-level basilica in his honor was begun in his hometown of Assisi. It was consecrated in 1253.

Near the end of the century the upper church was decorated with frescoes depicting the life of Francis and some of the legends that had already arisen in the 70 years since his death.



St. Francis Prepares the First Christmas Crib at Greccio
Italian, 1297-1300
Assisi, Basilica of St. Francis, Upper Level

 A number of artists were engaged in the decoration, including the Roman Jacopo Torriti and the Florentine Cimabue and his pupil, Giotto. Attribution of the frescoes is disputed, but many have seen in them the first works of Giotto.

Although severely damaged in an earthquake in 1997 (when four people were killed during an aftershock), the basilica and the frescoes have been repaired and the basilica was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2000 (http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/990/).

Francis’ greatest legacy, of course, is not the building in Assisi nor the frescoes that decorate it nor the other works of art inspired by his story, but the good done by the countless men and women who, over the last 800 years, have followed in his footsteps.

Father,
you helped Saint Francis to reflect the image of Christ
through a life of poverty and humility.
May we follow your Son
by walking in the footsteps of Francis of Assisi,
and by imitating his joyful love.
Grant this through our Lord Jesus Christ, your Son,
who lives and reigns with you and the Holy Spirit,
one God, for ever and ever. Amen.
(Memorial Prayer from Morning Prayer in the Liturgy of the Hours for Feast of St. Francis of Assisi, October 4)

© M. Duffy, 2011