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| The Olivetan Master, Baptism of Christ Cutting from a Choir Book Italian (Milan), c. 1425-1440 New York, Pierpont Morgan Library MS M 558.2 |
“Jesus came from Galilee to John at the Jordan
to be baptized by him.
John tried to prevent him, saying,
“I need to be baptized by you,
and yet you are coming to me?”
Jesus said to him in reply,
“Allow it now, for thus it is fitting for us
to fulfill all righteousness.”
Then he allowed him.
After Jesus was baptized,
he came up from the water and behold,
the heavens were opened for him,
and he saw the Spirit of God descending like a dove
and coming upon him.
And a voice came from the heavens, saying,
“This is my beloved Son, with whom I am well pleased.”
Matthew 3:13-17
Gospel for the Feast of the Baptism of the Lord, Year A – Sunday,
January 12, 2020
The feast of the Baptism of the Lord Jesus is celebrated by
the church on the Sunday following the feast of the Epiphany. In recent times it is designated as the end
of the season of Advent and Christmas. In some years, such as 2023, the feast has been assigned to the Monday immediately after the feast of Epiphany. Since the Sunday of the Baptism is also the first Sunday in Ordinary Time, from that day the Sundays are designated as Sundays in Ordinary Time
until the first Sunday of Lent (which for 2023 falls on February 26).
The three Synoptic Gospels (Matthew, Mark and Luke) all include the story of the baptism
of the Jesus, including the statement by the voice from heaven. Most of them are a bit more summary than the
account given by Matthew which is the Gospel reading for the feast in
2023. Further, all three PLUS the Gospel
of John include the most important visual detail of the scene, the descent of
the Spirit in the form of a dove. In the
Synoptic Gospels the dove is part of the action of the baptism, while for John
it is a detail referred to later by John the Baptist as part of his witness to
the identity of Jesus. In all instances
the Church has considered the event of the baptism as the official beginning of
the mission of Jesus on earth and the occurrence of the voice of the Father and
the appearance of the dove as an indication of his participation in the life of
the Trinitarian Godhead. It is an
indication that the human Jesus who acts in the Gospels is not an ordinary
human being, but is also acting as a manifestation of the divine Unity of the
Three-in-One.
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| Andrea del Verrochio and Leonardo da Vinci, Baptism of Christ Italian, c. 1472-1475 Florence, Galleria degli Uffizi |
Given its theological importance, images of the baptism of
Jesus have been a staple of Christian iconography since the earliest
times. Indeed, many of the Christian pictures
best known around the world as representative of the work of great artists are
images of the baptism of Jesus. The
earliest identifiable work by Leonardo da Vinci is an angel from a picture of the
Baptism by his master, Verrocchio. The image
by Piero della Francesca is often seen as the pinnacle of his work. As we shall see, the earlier image by Giotto is considered to
be a ground breaking work for the whole history of Western art.
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| Piero della Francesca, Baptism of Christ Italian, After 1437 London, National Gallery |
Early Representations
When conducting the image research for this article I was
struck by how much earlier the image appeared than I expected. Indeed, the earliest images I found are
tentatively dated to the decades before the last formal Roman persecution of
Christians under Diocletian. They are
often dated to the last quarter of the third century. This is astonishingly early. At this point the church was still very much
an underground movement, operating as much as possible out of the direct view
of the Roman authorities. Yet, there it
is, the image of the Baptism among several others on a carved sarcophagus frontal
in the Vatican Museums. One can clearly
make out the distinctive shape of John the Baptist, with upraised arm, pouring
water over the figure of Jesus.
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| Fragment of a Sarcophagus with the Baptism of Christ Roman, c. 275-300 Vatican, Museo Pio-Cristiano |
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| Detail of the image of the Baptism of Christ from the above. |
One
thing which is surprising is that the images of Jesus at this point all show him
as a smaller beardless figure, clearly differentiated from the Baptist, who is
shown as bearded, and wearing rough garments of animal skin. Presumably, this indicates that Jesus is
younger, just beginning his ministry.
All of the images (with the exception of the earliest which is damaged
in the important spot) include the image of the dove descending upon his
head.
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| Frontal from a Sarcophagus, Baptism of Christ Roman, c. 300-330 Vatican, Museo Pio-Cristiano To the left is the scene of the Nativity, to the right is Jesus raising the daughter of Jairus (Mark 5:22-43) |
So, from the very beginnings of
Christian iconography the important communication within the image is already
well defined.
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| Ivory Plaque. Baptism of Christ Late Antique, First third of 5th Century Berlin, Bode Museum |
What had been true for the period of persecution only
increased once Christianity was a recognized and officially tolerated religion
in the Empire, then the official religion of the Empire. Late antique examples abound, not just in
Rome or in Italy, but in far flung parts of the Empire as well: in what is today France and Germany.
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| Baptism of Christ From the Sarcophagus of the Anastasis Gallo-Roman, 375 Arles, Musée de l'Arles antique |
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| Ivory plaque, Baptism of Christ Probably Germano-Roman, 5th Century London, British Museum
At the right is the scene of the 12 year old Jesus in the Temple debating with the Doctors of the Law. The winged figure at the left end of the panel may be an angel, although angels are typically not bearded. Alternately, it could be a personification of the Holy Spirit, not as a dove, but as a person.
|
The Late Antique/Early Byzantine Period
As the Roman Empire in Western Europe faltered and
disappeared under the waves of migration from the east, the eastern portion of
the Empire morphed into the Byzantine Empire.
As happened with many other images, depictions of this Biblical subject developed
from the relatively naturalistic forms of the Late Antique into the heavily
stylized forms of Byzantine art, which has lasted for the past 1,500
years. Indeed, one can almost say that
the Byzantine image was more in the nature of an abstract sign, such as this
contemporary one, than a picture of a real event.
In the Early Christian and Late Antique samples Jesus and
John stand in a space in which John and Jesus are shown either in two sized or on
two levels, indicating that Jesus is standing in the stream of the River
Jordan, while John stands on the river bank.
Until the beginning of the fifth century there is no specific depiction
of water, however. Then, we begin to see
the use of horizontal lines moving across the legs of Jesus, as an indication
that he is standing in water.
 |
| Baptism of Christ Late Antique, c. 470-480 Ravenna, Baptistry of the Orthodox (Neonian Baptistry)
This mosaic was heavily (and clumsily) "restored" in the 19th Century, note the brighter yellow color of the areas containing the dove of the Holy Spirit and the heads and upper torsos of Jesus and Saint John. It is likely that the position of John's arm and the heads of both figures were modified at that time to correspond with the more developed iconography which was familiar to 19th century audiences. Originally these areas probably more closely corresponded to the other images of the Baptism which we have seen and which are shown immediately below. That is 1) a beardless Christ, 2) Saint John's hand resting closely on Jesus head. |
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| Baptism of Christ Late Antique, c. 500-526 Ravenna, Baptistry of the Arians |
Development in Byzantine Art and Translation into the Art of the Western Kingdoms
As the stylization of Byzantine art continued something weird began to happen.
In what I suspect was an attempt to depict the stream of the River
Jordan in perspective, but without the knowledge of how to accomplish this
effect, the water began to appear almost as a kind of blue skirt, forming a
sort of pyramid from Christ’s waist to his feet or as a transparent cloak from
his neck to his feet. This convention
worked its way into the newly formed kingdoms of western Europe and began to
appear there, supplanting the older, more naturalistic Late Antique
depictions.
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| Baptism of Christ Late Antique/Early Byzantine (Syria or Egypt), 6th Century London, British Museum |
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| Baptism of Christ From the Rabbula Gospels, Detail of a Canon Table with Miniature scenes Syrian, Completed 586 Florence, Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana MS Cod. Plut. I, fol. 56r
|
,%20Second%20Half%20of%209th%20Century_Paris,%20BNF_MS%20Grec%2020,%2026v%20(2).jpg)
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| Situla (Holy Water Bucket) Carolingian, c. 860-880 New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art |
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| Anglo-Saxon Ivory, Baptism of Christ English (Winchester), c. 10th-11th Century London, British Museum |
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| Engraved Rock Crystal. Baptism of Christ Carolingian, c. 900 Rouen, Musée departemental des Antiquités de la Seine-Maritime |
,%2011th%20-%2012th%20Century_Paris,%20BNF_MS%20Coislin%20239,%20fol.%20120.jpg) |
| Baptism of Christ From the Orations by Gregory Nazianzenus Byzantine (Constantinople), 11th - 12th Century Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France MS Coislin 239, fol. 120 |
The Middle Ages
With very few exceptions this was the dominant image of the baptism of Jesus in both the Byzantine lands and in the new kingdoms of Western Europe from the 10th to the beginning of the 14th centuries. Whereas the earliest images had stripped the number of figures down to the essential two, with the occasional river god thrown in as part of the larger mosaic images, angels now made their appearance. Every image of the baptism now included one or more angels, standing ready on the riverbank opposite John with towels or with Christ’s tunic. |
| The Baptism and Temptations of Christ From the Gospel Book of Otto III German (Reichenau), c. 1000 Munich, Bayeriesche Staatsbibliothek MS Clm 4453, fol. 30 |
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| Baptism of Christ From the Saint Peter Gospels Austrian (Salzburg), c. 1025-1050 New York, Pierpont Morgan Library MS M 781, fol. 40v |
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| Baptism of Christ From a Bible German (Pruem), c. 1100-1125 Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de Paris MS Latin 17325, fol. 22 |
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| Reinier de Huy, Baptismal Font Mosan (Liege), c. 1107-1108 Liege, Church of Saint-Barthelemy |
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| Baptism of Christ From the Saint Alban's Psalter (aka Psalter of Christina of Markyate) English (Abbey of Saint Alban's), First Half of 12th Century) Hildesheim, Dombibliothek MS St. God. 1, fol. 32 |
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| Baptism of Christ Mosan, c. 1150-1175 New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art
|
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| Baptism of Christ From a Gospel Book German (Saxony), c. 1215-1235 New York, Pierpont Morgan Library MS M 299, fol. 5v |
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| Baptismal Font with the Baptism of Christ German (Hildesheim), c. 1226 Hildesheim, Hohe Domkirche |
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| Applique plaque of the Baptism of Christ French (Limoges), Mid-12th Century Boston, Museum of Fine Arts |
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| Possibly Jacopino da Reggio, Baptism of Christ From a Psalter Italian (Bologna), c. 1200 Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France MS Smith-Lesouef 21, fol. 14 |
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| Baptism of Christ From Livre d'images de Madame Marie Flemish (Hainaut), c. 1285-1290 Paris, Biblitoheque nationale de France MS Nouvelle acquisition francaise 16251, fol. 27v |
This image remained the standard image for the mosaics, icons and manuscript illuminations of the
Orthodox church right up to the present day.
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| Baptism of Christ From a Bible Byzantine, c. 1100-1125 Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France MS Grec 75, fol. 95r |
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| Mosaic of the Baptism of Christ Byzantine (Sicily), c. 1150 Palermo, Cappella Palatina |
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| Baptism of Christ From the Four Gospels Byzantine (Cyprus or Palestine), c. 1275-1350 London, British Library MS Harley 1810, fol. 95r |
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| Mosaic of Baptism of Christ Byzantine, c. 1350 Venice, Basilica of San Marco |
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| Icon of the Baptism of Christ Russian (Possibly Novgorod), 15th-16th Century Vatican, Pinacoteca Vaticana |
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| Baptism of Christ Greek, 21st Century © Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America (https://www.goarch.org/epiphany) |
In Western Europe, however, things began to change in the early 14th century.
A New Direction in Italy
Probably the most important change can be seen in the Baptism of Christ by Giotto di Bondone as part of the life of Christ in the Scrovegni (Arena) Chapel in Padua, painted between about 1304 and 1306. As is often observed, Giotto was able to infuse the figures in his paintings with the weight and feel of living persons, a highly significant step away from the stylization of the Byzantine. He also is the first person since the Late Antique to depict the River Jordan as something other than a skirt or cloak. While still not able to reproduce a true perspective, he doesn’t try. He simply shows the effect of someone standing in a pool of water, if the water were seen head on. What perspective space exists is limited to a small shelf-like space in the rocks on either side of the river. There is just enough for the angels and Saint John and the two witnesses to stand on without giving the effect either of overcrowding, of being pasted on or of floating. |
| Giotto, Baptism of Christ Italian, c. 1304-1306 Padua, Scrovegni-Arena Chapel |
Giotto’s Baptism had an immediate impact on Italian
artists. From this point on it is
difficult to find any painting or work of sculpture of the Baptism by an Italian artist that shows
anything other than the effect of a real body standing in real water, although often continuing to adhere to the other aspects of Byzantine/Greek conventions.
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| Workshop of Pacino di Bonaguida, Baptism of Christ From Scenes from the life of Christ and life of Blessed Gerard of Villamagna Italian (Florence), c. 1315-1325 New York, Pierpont Morgan Library MS M 643, fol. 5v |
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| Andrea Pisano, Baptism of Christ From the south doors of the Baptistry Italian, 1330 Florence, Baptistry |
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| Giovanni Baronzio, Baptism of Christ Italian, c. 1335 Washington, National Gallery of Art
While the timeless, golden background still reflects the more abstract Byzantine style, the slight increase in bulk of the figures and, above all, the treatment of the water derive from Giotto. Christ no longer "wears" the Jordan River as a skirt or a cloak, but can be seen to be standing in a body of water. |
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| Baptism of Christ From Vies de la vierge et du Christ Italian (Naples), c. 1350 Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France MS Francais 9561, fol. 145v
By 1350 Giotto's innovation had spread nearly the length of the Italian peninsula, to the painter who illuminated this text for the French market in Naples. |
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| Giovanni di Benedetto and Workshop, Baptism of Christ From a Missal Italian (Milan), c. 1385-1390 Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France MS Latin 757, fol. 439v |
The Spread to the North
It took a little longer for this new pattern to circulate to the artists
of northern Europe. The ideas presumably
came to them through copies of the works of Giotto and his followers made by
visitors to Italy and by the arrival of Italian illuminated manuscripts which
were often exchanged as gifts between rulers or were in the possession of
Italian merchants working in the north.
The wool and woolen cloth of the north was a frequently sought commodity
for the Italian representatives of the weaving industry and merchants traveled
frequently between Tuscany and Flanders (for example). Bankers followed to facilitate the
transactions, so there was a great deal of interchange between north and south
through which each region could learn about the art of the other. The technique of using oil to work the
pigments for a painting instead of egg yolk was developed in northern Europe,
for example, and traveled south to Italy through these merchant ties. Italian compositions and eventually the
technique of mathematical perspective traveled north along the same route.
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| Master of the Roman de Fauvel, Baptism of Christ From Vies des saints French (Paris), c. 1300-1350 Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France MS Francais 183, fol. 181r |
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| Baptism of Christ From the Queen Mary Psalter Engilish (London), c. 1310-1320 London, British Library MS Royal 2 B VII, fol. 190v |
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| Jean Bondol and Others. Baptism of Christ From Grande Bible Historiale Completée by Guiard des Moulins French (Paris), c. 1371-1372 The Hague, Meermano Museum MS MMW 10 B 23, fol. 468r |
Nonetheless, by the last quarter of the 14th century, the image of Christ standing in water, instead of wearing it, was firmly established north of the Alps.
,%20c.%201385-1390_Paris,%20BNF_MS%20Latin%2018014,%20fol.%20209v.jpg) |
| Master of the Trinity, Baptism of Christ From Petites heures de Jean de Berry French (Bourges), c. 1385-1390 Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France MS Latin 18014, fol. 209r |
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| Baptism of Christ, Stained Glass Window Austrian, c. 1390 New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, The Cloisters Collection |
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| Master of the Baptism or Master of the Holy Spirit, Baptism of Christ From Tres belles heures de notre-dame de Jean de Berry French, c. 1400 Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France MS Nouvelle acquisition latine 3093, fol. 162
One interesting aspect of this illumination is that the small picture at the bottom is the scene of a Baptism contemporary with the book. In it we see the procession to church of the family and friends of a newborn. You may need to zoom on this, but it is clearly readable. The baby can be seen wrapped in white in the arms of a man or woman in a blue cloak as the clergy welcome them. One of the clergy can be seen to be reading from a book. The scene greatly resembles the baptism of infants today, only the clothing has changed. |
The Introduction of Perspective
By the middle of the 15th century, with just a few exceptions, the concept of the skirt or cloak of water had disappeared on both sides of the Alps. In addition, the introduction of mathematical perspective techniques, enabling a more accurate depiction of space, opened up the picture plane to depths unimaginable 150 years earlier. Now the river could trail off into the distance or form a pond without giving the impression of being something which the figure of Jesus stands within. Now he can be submerged up to his knees or to his waist, or in which he can knee or simply stand on the riverbank which John pours water over his head. |
| Lorenzo Ghiberti, The Baptism of Christ Panel from the Baptismal Font of the Life of Saint John the Baptist Italian, c. 1427 Siena, Baptistry |
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| Master of Marguerite d'Orleans, Baptism of Christ From Hours of Marguerite d'Orleans French (Rennes), c. 1430 Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France MS Latin 1156 B, fol. 161v |
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| Piero della Francesca, Baptism of Christ Italian, After 1437 London, National Gallery |
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| Rogier van der Weyden, Baptism of Christ Central Panel of the Saint John Altarpiece Flemish, c. 1445-1455 Berlin, Gemäldegalerie der Staatlichen Museen zu Berlin |
With the introduction of scientific perspective, the scene could
also open out. Towns and cities and
forests and mountains appeared in the distance.
The angel or angels are occasionally joined by other figures.
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| Baptism of Christ From a Book of Hours French (Paris), c. 1415-1425 New York, Pierpont Morgan Library MS M 1000, fol. 150r |
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| Fastolf Master, The Baptism of Christ From a Book of Hours French (Rouen), c. 1415-1435 New York, Pierpont Morgan Library MS M 27, fol. 46r |
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| Lorenzo Salimbeni, The Baptism of Christ Italian, c. 1416 Urbino, Oratory of San Giovanni Battista |
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| Masolino da Panicale, Baptism of Christ Italian, 1435 Castiglione Olona, Baptistry |
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| Giovanni Battista Cima da Conegliano, Baptism of Christ Italian, c. 1493-1494 Venice, Church of San Giovanni in Bragora |
During the last half of the 15th century some depictions began to include various groups of additional figures, sometimes seen in the distance. In some cases they are witnesses. Or they may be depictions of St. John the Baptist preaching to groups prior to the baptism of Jesus or of other persons waiting to be baptized themselves.
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| Baptism of Christ From Fleurs des histoires by Jean Mansel French, c. 1450-1475 Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France MS Francais 56, fol. 19r |
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| Giovanni di Paolo, Baptism of Christ Predella Panel from the Saint John the Baptist Altarpiece Italian, 1454 London, National Gallery |
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| Pietro Perugino, Baptism of Christ and Preaching of John the Baptist Italian, c. 1482 Vatican, Sistine Chapel |
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| Jean Colombe, Baptism of Christ From the Tres Riches Heures du duc de Berry French, c. 1485-1486 Chantilly, Musée Condé MS 65, fol. 109v |
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| Domenico Ghirlandaio, Baptism of Christ Italian, c. 1486-1490 Florence, Church of Santa Maria Novella, Tornabuoni Chapel |
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| Gerard David, Baptism of Christ Central Panel of the Triptych of Jan Des Trompes Flemish, 1505 Bruges, Groeninge Museum |
Whatever the specific details are the scene as a whole has been translated from a sort of narrative sign referencing the brief Gospel accounts to what a visual story setting the Gospel event into what is recognizably a world that is real to the viewer.
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| Pietro Perugino, Baptism of Christ Italian, c. 1500-1505 Chicago, Art Institute |
Thus, by the first decades of the 16th century,
in both north and south, the story of the Baptism of Christ had reached
something like a plateau where the narrative was clear and well
understood. However, under the pressures
unleashed by the Reformation, with controversy raging over the number of the sacraments and the meaning and timing of individual baptisms, some of this was soon to change. That story, however, will have to wait for
another post.
© M. Duffy, 2020
Excerpts from the Lectionary for Mass for Use in the Dioceses of the United States of America, second typical edition © 2001, 1998, 1997, 1986, 1970 Confraternity of Christian Doctrine, Inc., Washington, DC. Used with permission. All rights reserved. No portion of this text may be reproduced by any means without permission in writing from the copyright owner.
