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Gerard de Jode after Maarten de Vos, Last Judgment with Separation of the Sheep and Goats
Illustration of Matthew 25:31-33
Flemish, ca. 1580-1650 Rotterdam, Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen
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“When the Son of Man comes in his glory,
and all the angels with him,
he will sit upon his glorious throne,
and all the nations will be assembled before him.
And he will separate them one from another,
as a shepherd separates the sheep from the goats.
He will place the sheep on his right and the goats on his left.
Then the king will say to those on his right,
‘Come, you who are blessed by my Father.
Inherit the kingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world.
For I was hungry and you gave me food,
I was thirsty and you gave me drink,
a stranger and you welcomed me,
naked and you clothed me,
ill and you cared for me,
in prison and you visited me.’
Then the righteous will answer him and say,
‘Lord, when did we see you hungry and feed you,
or thirsty and give you drink?
When did we see you a stranger and welcome you,
or naked and clothe you?
When did we see you ill or in prison, and visit you?’
And the king will say to them in reply,
‘Amen, I say to you, whatever you did
for one of these least brothers of mine, you did for me.’
Then he will say to those on his left,
‘Depart from me, you accursed,
into the eternal fire prepared for the Devil and his angels.
For I was hungry and you gave me no food,
I was thirsty and you gave me no drink,
a stranger and you gave me no welcome,
naked and you gave me no clothing,
ill and in prison, and you did not care for me.’
Then they will answer and say,
‘Lord, when did we see you hungry or thirsty
or a stranger or naked or ill or in prison,
and not minister to your needs?’
He will answer them, ‘Amen, I say to you,
what you did not do for one of these least ones,
you did not do for me.’
And these will go off to eternal punishment,
but the righteous to eternal life.”
a stranger and you welcomed me,
naked and you clothed me,
ill and you cared for me,
in prison and you visited me.’
Then the righteous will answer him and say,
‘Lord, when did we see you hungry and feed you,
or thirsty and give you drink?
When did we see you a stranger and welcome you,
or naked and clothe you?
When did we see you ill or in prison, and visit you?’
And the king will say to them in reply,
‘Amen, I say to you, whatever you did
for one of these least brothers of mine, you did for me.’
Then he will say to those on his left,
‘Depart from me, you accursed,
into the eternal fire prepared for the Devil and his angels.
For I was hungry and you gave me no food,
I was thirsty and you gave me no drink,
a stranger and you gave me no welcome,
naked and you gave me no clothing,
ill and in prison, and you did not care for me.’
Then they will answer and say,
‘Lord, when did we see you hungry or thirsty
or a stranger or naked or ill or in prison,
and not minister to your needs?’
He will answer them, ‘Amen, I say to you,
what you did not do for one of these least ones,
you did not do for me.’
And these will go off to eternal punishment,
but the righteous to eternal life.”
Matthew 25:31-46
Gospel for February 15, 2016, Monday of the First Week of Lent
The passage from Matthew’s Gospel quoted above is generally
interpreted to refer to the coming of Jesus at the end of time, the Last
Judgment. On that day the dead will rise
and receive the final judgment on the lives they led. They will be separated into those who are
saved and who will spend eternity in God’s presence and those who have damned
themselves by their actions to spend eternity separated from God in an empty
self-imposed state of sorrow.
Each person will be saved or damned according to their actions in life. The saved will be saved because of their good actions toward the poor and suffering. The damned will learn that their neglect of the poor and suffering have cost them dearly.
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| Hans Memling, Last Judgment Triptych Flemish, 1467-1471 Gdansk, Muzeum Narodowe |
But the metaphor that
is used to describe the two groups is an interesting one, the saved are sheep
and the damned are goats. We may think
this an odd division. Are sheep and
goats so different?
Well, if you consult farmers or the websites aimed at
farmers you will learn that the two species, while superficially similar to the eyes
of a city dweller because they are both short, hairy animals with cloven hoofs, who are vegetarian and who give milk, are actually quite distinct, especially
when it comes to behavior.
Sheep are timid, grazing animals with a strong flocking instinct. Any visitor to sheep country can tell you that they are usually seen as white dots scattered on green fields, almost always with their heads down, eating grass. When approached, they will raise their heads, stand still and watch. Should you come too close, they will run away. They trust few humans, but they do trust those who shepherd and care for them. Having once helped to raise an orphaned lamb I know that once they trust they can be very loyal and are quite sweet.
Sheep are timid, grazing animals with a strong flocking instinct. Any visitor to sheep country can tell you that they are usually seen as white dots scattered on green fields, almost always with their heads down, eating grass. When approached, they will raise their heads, stand still and watch. Should you come too close, they will run away. They trust few humans, but they do trust those who shepherd and care for them. Having once helped to raise an orphaned lamb I know that once they trust they can be very loyal and are quite sweet.
Goats
on the other hand are foraging animals that prefer eating rougher fare, such as
twigs and leaves that grow up from the soil.
Goats are able to stand on their hind legs to reach the tenderest
branches and they have a much wider food preference. This aspect has contributed to a recent interest in using goats to clear dense shrubby areas in parks, etc. In recent years Riverside Park in New York City has used goats for this purpose. Goats are hired from a farmer for the summer months and allowed to forage freely in the shrubby, hilly terrain of the park in places that would be difficult for humans to work comfortably and safely.
One interesting difference between the two species is that, while the tails of sheep hang down, the tails of goats point up. Goats are also less flock oriented and are naturally curious, so they tend to wander about and get into much more trouble
with humans than sheep. And then there are those beards!
Indeed goats have a relatively bad reputation. In ancient Israel the two could not have been more different. Sheep, especially lambs, were sacrificial animals (although kid goats could sometimes substitute). But on Yom Kippur a goat was driven out of the towns into the wilderness after being symbolically loaded with the sins of the community. It was the scapegoat. Goats were seen as more inclined to do bad things than sheep. Therefore, they are a natural metaphor for the damned in the division of souls at the end of time by the One who referred to Himself as the Good Shepherd.
Indeed goats have a relatively bad reputation. In ancient Israel the two could not have been more different. Sheep, especially lambs, were sacrificial animals (although kid goats could sometimes substitute). But on Yom Kippur a goat was driven out of the towns into the wilderness after being symbolically loaded with the sins of the community. It was the scapegoat. Goats were seen as more inclined to do bad things than sheep. Therefore, they are a natural metaphor for the damned in the division of souls at the end of time by the One who referred to Himself as the Good Shepherd.
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Good Shepherd Painting
Early Christian, 3rd Century
Rome, Catacomb of Priscilla
(Don't be misled by the horns on the animals. Many breeds of sheep have horns in both sexes, although the horns of the rams are usually larger and more elaborate than those of the ewes. Lambs may have tiny horn buds as well.) |
So, what about art?
How did artists see this? Well,
for one thing, we know that very early in Christianity sheep were recognized as
symbolic of the souls of believers, the Christian “flock”. They already appear in Christian art in the
third century and begin to appear in the works commissioned by Constantine and
his family shortly after his conversion.
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Traditio Legis Mosaic
Early Christian, c. 350-360
Rome, Church of Santa Costanza
This mausoleum/church was erected for Constantine's daughter.1
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Constantine’s successors, the Byzantine emperors, continued to commission works of art that fairly swarmed with sheep, and a small number of goats.
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Apse and Triumphal Arch
Byzantine, 6th Century
Ravenna, Church of Sant'Apollinare in Classe
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| Sarcophagus Byzantine, 6th Century Ravenna, Church of Sant'Apollinare in Classe |
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Christ Separating the Sheep and the Goats
Byzantine Mosaic, 6th Century
Ravenna, Church of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo
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Romanesque Sculptor, Last Judgment
French, 1125-1135
Conques, Cathedral of Sainte Foy
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Gislebertus, Last Judgment
French, 1130-1145
Autun, Cathedral of Saint Lazare
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The Seven Works of Mercy (sometimes also called the Seven
Acts of Mercy) began to appear in art during the twelfth century.
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Romanesque Sculptor, Works of Mercy
Italian, 1196-1216
Parma, Baptistry
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Attributed to the Madonna Master, Wheel of Sevens From a Psalter, known as The De Lisle Psalter English (London), c.1310 London, British Library MS Arundel 83, fol. 129v This graphic representation of various 7s from the Bible includes the Seven Works of Mercy |
They were sometimes encountered in the
illustrations of the lives of the saints, especially in the lives of lay people
who had a particular reputation for their charitable works, such as St.
Elizabeth of Hungary (also called St. Elizabeth of Thuringia) and St. Louis of
France.
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Anonymous Master,
St. Elizabeth Clothes the Poor and Tends the Sick
German, 1390s
Cologne, Wallraf-Richartz-Museum
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Master Mahiet, Louis XI and the Poor From Vie de St. Louis by Guillaume de Saint-Pathus French (Paris), 1330-1340 Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France MS Francais 5716, fol. 137r |
However, by the fifteenth century the tradition of showing the Works of Mercy was well enough established that the reference to the royal saints was no longer needed and ordinary citizens became the performers of the works.
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| Atelier of the Catalan Master of St. Mark from Breviari d'Amor by Master Ermengau of Beziers Spanish (Catalonia), c. 1375-1380 London, British Library MS Yates Thompson 31, fol. 110v |
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Master of Catherine of Cleves, Feeding the Hungry
From the Hours of Catherine of Cleves
Dutch (Utrecht), c. 1435-1445
New York, Pierpont Morgan Library
MS M 945, fol.131r |
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Anonymous, Clothing the Naked From a Book of Hours French, 1450-1475 Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France MS Latin 1175, fol. 50r |
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Anonymous, Feeding the Hungry From a Book of Hours Franch, 1450-1475 Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France MS Latin 1175, fol. 51r |
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Anonymous, Giving Drink to the Thirsty From a Book of Hours French, 1450-1475 Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France MS Latin 1175, fol. 52r |
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Anonymous, Caring for the Sick From a Book of Hours French, 1450-1475 Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France MS Latin 1175, fol. 53r |
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Anonymous, Visiting Prisoners From a Book of Hours French, 1450-1475 Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France MS Latin 1175, fol. 54r |
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Anonymous, Almsgiving From a Book of Hours French, 1450-1475 Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France MS Latin 1175, fol. 55r |
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Anonymous, Burying the Dead From a Book of Hours French. 1450-1475 Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France MS Latin 1175, fol. 56r |
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| The Master of Alkmaar, The Seven Works of Mercy Polyptych Dutch, 1504 Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum |
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| The Master of Alkmaar, First Three Works of Mercy (Feeding the Hungry, Giving Drink to the Thirsty, Clothing the Naked) Dutch, 1504 Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum |
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| The Master of Alkmaar, Three Works of Mercy (Welcoming Strangers, Visiting the Sick, Visiting Prisoners) Dutch, 1504 Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum |
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| Master of Alkmaar, Burying the Dead From the "Seven Works of Mercy Polyptych" Dutch, 1504 Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum The Rijksmuseum's notes on the polyptych indicate that this last panel was "seriously damaged with a knife, with parts of the paint layer being hacked off, mainly in the faces" during an outbreak of Protestant iconoclasm in either 1566 or 1575. |
During the Reformation some questioned the efficacy of “works” of all kinds,
opposing them to simple faith which, the Reformers claimed, was all that was
needed for salvation. The Catholic Church
maintained, however, that one needed both faith and works for salvation, as
clearly indicated by passages such as this Gospel, for the performance of Works
of Mercy is the act of making our faith and love visible and active.
During the Catholic Counter-Reformation period following the Council of Trent a large number of representations of the Works of Mercy appeared in the Catholic countries. In particular a series of drawings by the Flemish artist Maarten de Vos was turned into engravings by a group of engravers in the late sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. I am including some of them, but you can also refer to the British Museum website for many more.2
During the Catholic Counter-Reformation period following the Council of Trent a large number of representations of the Works of Mercy appeared in the Catholic countries. In particular a series of drawings by the Flemish artist Maarten de Vos was turned into engravings by a group of engravers in the late sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. I am including some of them, but you can also refer to the British Museum website for many more.2
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| Dirk Volketsz Coornhert (After Maarten van Heemskerck), Clothing the Naked Dutch, 1552 Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum |
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| Dirk Volketsz Coornhert (After Maarten van Heemskerck), Visiting Prisoners Dutch, 1552 Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum |
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| Gerard de Jode (after Maarten de Vos), Welcoming Strangers Flemish, c.1580 Private Collection |
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| Gerard de Jode (after Maarten de Vos), Burying the Dead Flemish, c.1580 Private Collection |
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| Crispijn de Passe I (after Maarten de Vos), Feeding the Hungry Dutch, c.1590 Philadelphia, Museum of Art |
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| Crispijn de Passe I (after Maarten de Vos), Giving Drink to the Thirsty Dutch, c.1590 Philadelphia, Museum of Art |
In addition, many of the artists of the Catholic countries and even a few from the Calvinist Dutch Republic represented the Seven Works of Mercy in paintings, sometimes focusing on one work, but frequently jamming all seven into one painting.
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| Caravaggio, The Seven Acts of Mercy Italian, c.1607 Naples, Pio Monte della Misericordia |
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| Frans Francken II, The Seven Acts of Mercy Flemish, 1613-1617 St. Petersberg, The Hermitage Museum |
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| David Teniers the Younger, The Seven Works of Mercy Dutch, 1640s Paris, Musée du Louvre |
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| Simon de Vos, The Seven Works of Mercy Flemish, 1630-1640 Paris, Musée du Louvre |
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| Michiel Sweerts, Clothing the Naked Flemish, c.1661 New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art |
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| Luis Tristan, St. Louis Distributing Alms Spanish, c.1620 Paris, Musée du Louvre The older hagiographic "exemplar" iconography continued to survive. |
With the end of religious controversy and general settling down of the Catholic/Protestant demarcation in Europe, images of the seven works seem to have diminished. By the eighteenth century they seem to have disappeared altogether.
One late group of paintings, called the Acts of Mercy but
not actually connected to the Gospel passage, was done in England between 1915-1920
by the artist, Frederic Cayley Robinson. Commissioned by the Middlesex Hospital these paintings represent only four acts: feeding the hungry and giving drink to the
thirsty, sheltering the homeless and caring for the sick. And, indeed, they are more illustrations of a faceless corporate response to the social issues of their day than the paintings and prints in the tradition of individual Christian action we have been looking at.
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| Frederic Cayley Robinson, Orphan Girls Going to Table English, 1915-16 London, Wellcome Library Collection |
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| Frederic Cayley Robinson, Orphan Girls Refectory of a Hospital English, 1915 London, Wellcome Library Collection |
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| Frederic Cayley Robinson, People Outside a Hospital English, 1916 London, Wellcome Library Collection |
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| Frederic Cayley Robinson, Soldiers Outside the Hospital English, 1920 London, Wellcome Library Collection |
© M. Duffy, 2016
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1. For more on the church of Santa Costanza see http://imaginemdei.blogspot.com/2012/01/eve-of-st-agnes-poet-some-painters-and.html
2. For the British Museum holdings of the adapation of the drawings of Maarten de Vos by multiple engravers, visit http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/search.aspx?people=103939&subject=17087
2. For the British Museum holdings of the adapation of the drawings of Maarten de Vos by multiple engravers, visit http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/search.aspx?people=103939&subject=17087
Scripture texts in this work are taken from the New American Bible, revised edition© 2010, 1991, 1986, 1970 Confraternity of Christian Doctrine, Washington, D.C. and are used by permission of the copyright owner. All Rights Reserved. No part of the New American Bible may be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the copyright owner.
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